Theories and Concepts of Motivation

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major
Theories of Motivation)
• Biological Theories:

1. Instinct--inborn, unlearned
behaviors universal to species
explain motivation
2. Drive-Reduction--internal tensions
“push” toward satisfying basic
needs
3. Arousal--motivated toward optimal
level of arousal

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Drive-Reduction Theory

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Hunger and the Brain

Hypothalamus
– lateral hypothalamus
initiation of hunger and eating
– ventromedial hypothalamus
cessation of hunger and eating

Neurotransmitters
Obesity and Eating Behavior

Psychological Factors
In the past, the focus was on
– emotional state
– external food cues
Current research is focusing on
– time and place cues
– sugar and fat content
 Disordered Eating

Anorexia Nervosa
– relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
– more common among females
– main characteristics
less than 85% of normal weight
unsupported fear of gaining weight
distorted body image
amenorrhea
– medical dangers and mortality
 Disordered Eating

Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia

– sociocultural
• media images
• family interactions
– biological
• genetics
• serotonin regulation
• neurological effects of dieting, binging, purging
 Arousal
Theory

• People seek an
optimal level of
arousal that
maximizes their
performance.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major
Theories of Motivation Cont.)

• Psychosocial Theories:
1. Incentive--motivation
results from the “pull” of
external environmental
stimuli
2. Cognitive--motivation
affected by attributions
and expectations
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Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Intrinsic v. Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation
– organismic needs + enjoyability
– key to achievement

Extrinsic Motivation
– incentives (rewards, punishments)

Does extrinsic motivation undermine

intrinsic motivation?
 Self-Determination Theory
Three Basic Organismic Needs
1. competence
self-efficacy, mastery, expectations for success
2. relatedness
warm relations with others, need to belong
3. autonomy
independence and self-reliance
 Theories and Concepts of Motivation: (Major
Theories of Motivation Cont.)
• Biopsychosocial Theory:

1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

interaction of biological,
psychological, and social needs;
lower motives (physiological and
safety) must be met before
higher needs (belonging, self-
esteem)
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007
Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Social Motivation: Why make friends?

• Evolutionary Psychology: Using Darwinian

principles to explain human nature.
• Being nice, making friends must have offered
some fitness advantage for our ancestors
• Evolution of niceness:
– Kin selection: being nice to those with similar
genetics

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Kin selection

• There are a number of examples of

what appear to be altruistic
behaviors among animals. Most are
explainable as examples of kin
selection.
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 Reciprocity: You scratch my back I’ll scratch yours
• Non related individuals
sometimes engage in
reciprocal arrangements,
vampire bats share
blood, chimps groom for
food

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Indirect reciprocity: being nice to the nice
• Some animals are sensitive to reputation and
restrict reciprocal interactions to only those
who have a history of playing fair

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 So why are humans friendly to each other?

• Kin bias
• Reciprocal arrangements
• Reputational rewards

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Human Mate Attraction

• Using an evolutionary approach to explain why we are

attracted to certain traits in members of the opposite
sex.
• Operates at level of “gut” attractions, not conscious
evaluation
• Identifies what types of attractions in members of
opposite sex would have enhanced reproductive success
in our ancestral past.
• Argues that problems of optimizing reproductive success
would have been different for males and females, and
thus would have lead to somewhat different
reproductive strategies and attractions.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Thomas Aquinas on Marriage

• We observe that in those animals, dogs for

instance, in which the female herself suffices for the
rearing of the offspring, the male and female stay
no time together after the sexual act. But in animals
in which the female herself does not suffice for the
rearing of the offspring, male and female dwell
together after the sexual act so long as is necessary
for the rearing and training of the offspring. This
appears in birds whose young are incapable of their
own food after they are hatched…Hence, whereas it
is necessary in all animals for the male to stand by
the female for such a time as the father’s
concurrence is requisite for bringing up the
progeny, it is natural for man to be tied to…one
woman for a long period…(SCG B3 Q122).

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Challenges to reproductive success: Males vs. Females

• Advantages of being male:

– Cheap sperm: relatively low parental investment cost
Disadvantage:
low paternity certainty
Advantage of being female:
High maternity certainty
Disadvantage:
costly eggs: relatively high parental investment

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Buss: Global study on mate attraction
Over 10,000 subjects from over 30 countries across the globe.

• Female attractions: decrease parental investment by

getting good genes and copious resources

• Male long-term mate attractions: increase paternity

certainty, while maximizing reproductive output

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved Male Attractions: Long-term mates – desire
for youth

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved Male Attractions: Beauty

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved Male Attractions: Chastity

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Evolved Male Attractions: Long-term mates
Summary

• 1. Youth/Beauty: increase reproductive value

in single mate
• 2. Chastity/youth: increasing paternity
certainty in offspring to be resourced

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved female attractions: Long-term mates
Age

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved female attractions: long-term mates
Financial Prospects

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved Female attractions: Long-term mates
Good genes

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Evolved Female attractions: Long-term mates
Good genes

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Female evolved attractions:
summary

• 1. Older mate/good financial prospects:

status, stability, resources
• 2. Cues of masculinity: good genes
• 3. interaction with ovulatory cycle: evidence
for cuckoldry strategy?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Human mate attraction: Long term mates
• Males: young, beautiful,
sexually modest
• Reproductive value; paternity
certainty

• Females: older, high-status

(or potential), robust
• Good genetics, stable secure
source of resources.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
Cross-cultural signally

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Risks of step-parenting.
Note: Violent step parents represent less than 1% of step families

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)
 Darwinian strategy to happy marriage

• For females: Men want paternity certainty, so avoid all

jealousy-arousing behavior (don’t even look at other men).
Also, take good care of his genes (offspring).
• For males: Women want resources. All the money is hers.
Avoid spending money in any way she dislikes.
• For both: Both want health (good genes, fertility, etc.) Take
care of yourselves. Have some kids – lower divorce rate
among couples with kids.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007

Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)