§5.2 - 5.

3 Graphs and
Graph Terminology
“Liesez Euler, Liesez
Euler, c’est notre
maître à tous.”
- Pierre Laplace
Graphs consist of Example 1: The
 points called following picture
vertices is a graph. List its
 lines called vertices
A and
edges edges. D

1. Edges connect two C

vertices.
2. Edges only
intersect at
vertices.
3. Edges joining a E
vertex to itself
are called loops. B
 Example 2:
This is also a graph. The vertices just
happen to have people’s names.
Such a graph could represent friendships
(or any kind of relationship).

Flexo Bender Leela

Zoidberg
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Fry Amy Farnsworth

 Now check out the graph below.
What can we say about it in comparison to
the previous figure?

Leela Fry

Flexo

Amy
Bender
Farnsworth Zoidberg
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
 Moral of the Story
• One graph may be drawn in
(infinitely) many ways, but it
always provides us with the same
information.
• Graphs are a structure for
describing relationships between
objects.
(The vertices denote the objects and the
edges represent the relationship.)
Graph Terminology
Graph Terminology
e ma th -y ja rg on on e could ask
(ie - all th
for)

 Adj a c e n t V e rt i c e s a r e
tw o v e r ti c e s t h a t a r e
joined by an edge.
 Adjacent Edges are
two edges that
inter s e c t a t a v e r t e x .
 The degree of a
e r t e x i s t h e n u m b e r o f
v
edges at that vertex.
Graph Terminology
A l o o p co u n t s tw i c e
toward the degree.

An odd vertex is a
vertex of odd degree.
An even vertex is a
vertex of even degree.
Example 3:

1) Find the degree A

of each vertex. D

2) Is A adjacent to
C
B?
Is D adjacent to
A?
Is E adjacent to
itself?
Is C adjacent to E
itself?
B
3) Is AB adjacent to
BC?
Is CE adjacent to
BD?
Graph Terminology

A p a t h i s a s e q u e n c e
of v e r t ic e s s u ch t h a t
v e r t ex i s ad j a c e n t
each
to the next. In a
p a t h , e a c h e d g e c a n b e
traveled only once.
•The length of a path
is t h e n u m b e r o f e d g e s
in that path.
Graph Terminology
•A path that starts
and ends at the same
vertex is called a
circuit.

•A graph is connected
if any two vertices
can be joined by a
pa t h . If t h i s i s n o t
possible then the
gr a p h is di s c o n n ec t e d .
Graph Terminology
•The connected
parts of a
di s c o n ne c t e d g r a p h
are called
components.
•A bridge is an
ed g e i n a c o nn e c t e d
gr a p h w h o s e r e m o v a l
makes it
disconnected.
 Example 4:
1) Find a path from B to
K passing through W
S J but not S.

B 2) Find a path from H to

J of length 4.
W 3) Find a circuit of
H
K length 5.
4) Find a circuit of
length 1.
Example 5: Draw a picture of a 5)
graph
Findthat satisfies
a bridge.
the following:
Vertices: A, B, C, D
Edges: AB, AC, AD, B is adjacent to D.
Graph Terminology
•An Euler Path is a
path that travels
th r ou g h ev e ry e d g e o f
the graph (once and
only once).

•An E u l e r C i r c u i t i s a
cir c u i t t h a t t r a v e l s
th ro u g h e v e r y e d g e o f
a gr a ph .
Example 6: The graph on the
left has no Euler paths, but
the one on the right has
several.
R R

A D A D

L L
 §5.4 - 5.5 Graph
Models and Euler’s
Theorems
“Now I will have less
distraction.”
- Leonhard Euler
after losing sight
in his right eye.
 Königsberg’s Bridges II
(The rare sequel that is not entirely
gratuitous.)
Recall from Tuesday the
R
puzzle that the residents
of Königsburg had been
unable to solve until
Euler’s arrival: A D
• Is there a way to cross
all seven bridges exactly
once and return to your
starting point? L

• Is there even a way to A stylized (i.e. - inaccurate)

cross all seven bridges map of Königsberg’s Bridges.
exactly once?
 What Euler realized was that most of the information
on the maps had no impact on the answers to the two
questions.

R R

D A D
A

L L

By thinking of each bank and island as a vertex and each

bridge as an edge joining them Euler was able to model
the situation using the graph on the right. Hence, the
Königsberg puzzle is the same as asking if the graph has
an Euler path or Euler circuit.
Example: Slay-
age
• The Scooby Gang needs to patrol the following section of
town starting at Sunnydale High (labeled G). Draw a
graph that models this situation, assuming that each
side of the street must be checked except for those
along the park. (Map is from p. 206)
Example 2: (Exercise 21, pg
207) The map to the right
of downtown Kingsburg, shows
the Kings River running
through the downtown area
and the three islands (A, B,
and C) connected to each
other and both banks by
seven bridges. The Chamber
of Commerce wants to design
a walking tour that crosses
all the bridges. Draw a
graph that models the layout
of Kingsburg.
 Example 3:
The Kevin Bacon Game
(http://www.cs.virginia.edu/oracle/)
 Euler’s Theorems
• Euler’s Theorem 1
(a) If a graph has any odd vertices, then
it cannot have an Euler circuit.
(b) If a graph is connected and every
vertex is even, then it has at least one
Euler circuit.
• Euler’s Theorem 2
(a) If a graph has more than two odd
vertices, then it cannot have an Euler
path.
(b) If a connected graph has exactly two
odd vertices then it has at least one
Euler path starting at one odd vertex
and ending at another odd vertex.
Example 4: Königsburg’s Bridges III (The Search For
More Money)
Money
Let us consider again the Königsburg Brdige puzzle as
represented by the graph below:
R

A D

We have already seen that the puzzle boils down to

whether this graph has an Euler path and/or an
Euler circuit. Does this graph have either?
Example 5: (Exercise 60, pg 214) Refer to Example
2. Is it possible to take a walk such that you cross
each bridge exactly once? Explain why or why not.

A B C

S
Example 6: Unicursal Tracings
Recall the routing problems presented on Tuesday:
•“Do these drawings have unicursal tracings? If so, are
they open or closed?”

How might we answer these queries? Well, if we add

vertices to the corners of the tracings we can reduce the
questions to asking whether the following graphs have
Euler paths (open tracing) and/or Euler circuits (closed
tracing).

(a (b)
)
(c)
• Euler’s Theorem 3
(a) The sum of the degrees of all the
vertices of a graph equals twice the
number of edges.
(b) A graph always has an even number
of odd vertices.
A quick summary . . .
Number of odd vertices
Conclusion
0 Graph has Euler
circuit(s)
2 Graph has Euler
path(s) but no Euler
circuit
4, 6, 8, . . . Graph has no Euler
path and no Euler
circuit
1, 3, 5, . . . Impossible!
§5.6 Fleury’s
Algorithm
• Euler’s Theorems give us a simple way
to see whether an Euler circuit or an
Euler path exists in a given graph, but
how do we find the actual circuit or
path?
• We could use a “guess-and-check”
method, but for a large graph this could
lead to many wasted hours--and not
wasted in a particularly fun way!
 Algorithms
An algorithm is a set of procedures/rules
that, when followed, will always lead
to a solution* to a given problem.
• Some algorithms are formula driven--
they arrive at answers by taking data
and ‘plugging-in’ to some equation or
function.
• Other algorithms are directive driven--
they arrive at answers by following a
given set of directions.
 Fleury’s Algorithm
• The Idea:
“Don’t burn your bridges behind you.”
(“bridges”: graph-theory bridges, not real world)
• When trying to find an Euler path or an Euler
circuit, bridges are the last edges we should
travel.
• Subtle point: Once we have traversed an
edge we no longer care about it--so by
“bridges” we mean the bridges of the part of
the graph that we haven’t traveled yet.
Example 1: Does this graph have an Euler circuit? If so,
find one.
A
B

D
C

F
 Fleury’s Algorithm
1) Ensure the graph is connected and all the
vertices are even*.
2) Pick any vertex as the starting point.
3) When you have a choice, always travel along
an edge that is not a bridge of the yet-to-be-
traveled part of the graph.
4) Label the edges in the order which you travel.
5) When you can’t travel anymore, stop.

* - This works when we have an Euler

circuit. If we only have a path, we
must start at one of (two) the odd
vertices.
Example 2: Do the following drawings have unicursal tracings? If
so, label the edges 1, 2, 3, . . . In the order in which they can be
traced.
Example 3: (Exercise 60, pg
214) The map to the right
of downtown Kingsburg, shows
the Kings River running
through the downtown area
and the three islands (A, B,
and C) connected to each
other and both banks by
seven bridges. The Chamber
of Commerce wants to design
a walking tour that crosses
all the bridges. Draw a
graph that models the layout
of Kingsburg. N

It was shown yesterday that

it was possible to take a A B C
walk in such that you cross
each bridge exactly once.
Show how.
S
Example: Slay-
age
• The Scooby Gang needs to patrol the following section of
town starting at Sunnydale High (labeled G). Suppose
that they must check each side of the street except for
those along the park. Find an optimal route for our
intrepid demon hunters to take.
Quiz 1, problem 2

North Bank (N)

B
A C

South Bank (S)

 Mathematics and the
Arts?
• One of Euler’s
800+ publications
included a
treatise on music
theory.
• Book was too
math-y for most
composers--too
music-y for most
mathematicians
 Mathematics and the
Arts?
• While Euler’s
theories did not
catch on, a
relationship
between
mathematics and
music composition
does exist in
what is called
the golden ratio.
 Fibonacci Numbers
• The Fibonacci Numbers
are those that comprise
the sequence:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, . . .
• The sequence can be
defined by:
F1=1, F2=1;
Fn=Fn-1+Fn-2
• These numbers can be
used to draw a series of
‘golden’ rectangles like
those to the right.
 Fibonacci Numbers
• The sequence of
Fibonacci Ratios
- fractions like
3/5, 5/8, 8/13
approach a number
called the Golden
Ratio
(≈0.61803398…)
 The Golden Ratio
• Several of Mozart’s
piano sonatas make use
of this ratio.
• At the time such pieces
regularly employed a
division into two parts
1. Exposition and
Development
2. Recapitulation
• In Piano Sonata No. 1
the change between parts
occurs at measure 38 of
100. (which means that
part 2 is 62 ≈ 0.618 x
100)
 The Golden Ratio
• Another example in music
is in the ‘Hallelujah’
chorus in Handel’s
Messiah.
• The piece is 94 measures
long.
• Important events in
piece:
1. Entrance of trumpets -
“King of Kings” occurs in
measures 57-58 ≈ (8/13)
x 94
2. “The kingdom of
glory…” occurs in meas.
34-35 ≈ (8/13) x 57
etc, etc. . .
The Golden Ratio in
Art

Approx. = 0.618 x H
The Golden Ratio in
Art

Approx. = 0.618 x H
The Golden Ratio in
Art
 The Golden Ratio in
Art
.618 x Ht.

0.618 x Width
 The Golden Ratio in
Art
.618 x Ht.

0.618 x Width