Quantum Mechanics

09/27/2020 Quantum Physics, 1st meeting 1

 Quantum Physics inside
Physics

09/27/2020 Quantum Physics, 1st meeting 2

 Mechanics: Classic to Quantum

<<<

Classical Quantum
Mechanics Mechanics

Relativistic Quantum Field

V>>> Mechanics Theory

09/27/2020 Quantum Physics, 1st meeting 3

 “Newton, forgive me..”, Albert
Einstein
At the atomic scale Newtonian Mechanics
cannot seem to describe the motion of
particles. An electron trajectory between
two points for example IS NOT a perfect
parabolic trajectory as Newton's Laws
predicts. Where Newton's Laws end
Quantum Mechanics takes over.....IN A
BIG WAY!

One of the most popular concepts

concerning Quantum Mechanics is
called , “The Photoelectric Effect”. In
1905, Albert Einstein published this theory
for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1921.

09/27/2020 Quantum Physics, 1st meeting 4

 Wasiat NEWTON

…Menciptakan teori baru bukan berarti merobohkan

gedung tua untuk dibangun gedung pencakar
langit di atasnya. Ini lebih berarti mendaki gunung,
makin ke atas makin luas pandangannya, makin
menemukan hubungan antara titik awal pendakian
dengan hal-hal disekelilingnya yang ternyata
sangat kaya raya dan tak terduga sebelumnya.
Namun titik awal tersebut tetap ada meskipun
tampak lebih kecil dan hanya merupakan satu
bagian kecil dari pemandangan luas yang kita
peroleh dari hasil perjuangan mengatasi rintangan
selama mendaki ke atas.
 The victory of the weird
theory
• Without Quantum Mechanics, we could never have
designed and built:
– semiconductor devices
• computers, cell phones, etc.
– lasers
• CD/DVD players, bar-code scanners, surgical applications
– MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) technology
– nuclear reactors
– atomic clocks (e.g., GPS navigation)
• Quantum Commputing (the technology still in progress)
• Physicists didn’t embrace quantum mechanics because it
was gnarly, novel, or weird

6
 Quantum?
Quantum mechanics is the study of processes
which occur at the atomic scale.

The word "quantum" is derived

From Latin to mean BUNDLE.

Therefore, we are studying the motion of

objects that come in small bundles called
quanta. These tiny bundles that we are
referring to are electrons traveling around
the nucleus.

09/27/2020 Quantum Physics, 1st meeting 7

The Emergence of Quantum Physics
• Some “Problems” with Classical Physics
– Blackbody Radiation
– Photoelectric effect
– Compton Effect
– Wave Properties of Matter
– Electron Diffraction
RPS
 Blackbody Radiation:
• Solids heated to very high
temperatures emit visible light
(glow)
– Incandescent Lamps (tungsten
filament)
• The color changes with
temperature
– At high temperatures emission
color is whitish, at lower
temperatures color is more
reddish, and finally disappear
– Radiation is still present, but
“invisible light”
– Can be detected as heat (ex: NIR)
 Blackbody Radiation

– A blackbody is an object that absorbs

all radiation incident upon it
– Blackbodies radiate, but do not reflect and so
are black

Blackbody Radiation is EM radiation

emitted by blackbodies
 Blackbody Radiation
• There are no absolutely blackbodies in nature
– this is idealization
• But some objects closely mimic blackbodies:
– Carbon black or (reflection is <<1%)
• The closest objects to the ideal blackbody is a
cavity with small hole (and the universe
shortly after the big bang)
Entering radiation has little chance of
escaping, and mostly absorbed by the walls.
Thus the hole does not reflect incident
radiation and behaves like an ideal absorber,
and “looks black”
 Blackbody Radiation
• The maximum shifts to shorter wavelengths
with increasing temperature
– the color of heated body changes from red to orange to
yellow-white with increasing temperature

• 5780 K is the temperature of the Sun

 Blackbody Radiation
• The wavelength of maximum intensity
per unit wavelength is defined by the
Wien’s Displacement Law:
max  T  b
b = 2.898×10-3 m/K is a constant
• For, T ~ 6000 K,

2.898  10 3
max   483 nm
6000
 Blackbody Radiation Laws
• Emission is
continuous

• The total emitted energy increases with temperature, and

represents, the total intensity (Itotal) – the energy per unit time
per unit area or power per unit area – of the blackbody
emission at given temperature, T.
• It is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law

I total  T 4

– σ = 5.670×10-8 W/m2-K4
• To get the emission power, multiply Intensity Itotal by area A
Basic Laws of Radiation

1) All objects emit radiant energy.

2) Hotter objects emit more energy than

colder objects (per unit area). The
amount of energy radiated is
proportional to the temperature of the
object.

3) The hotter the object, the shorter the

wavelength () of emitted energy.
 Stefan Boltzmann Law.
I =  T4

I = flux of energy (W/m2)

T = temperature (K)
 = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4 (a constant)

 Wien’s Law
max  T  b
We can use these equations to calculate properties
of energy radiating from the Sun and the Earth.
6,000 K

T max region I
in
(K) (m) spectru (W/m2
m )

Sun 6000 0.5 Visible 7 x 107

(green)
300 K

Earth 300 10 infrare 460

d
 Blackbody Radiation Laws:
Classical Physics View
• Average energy of a harmonic oscillator is <E>

• Intensity of EM radiation emitted by classical

harmonic oscillators per unit frequency ν:

8 V 2
I ( , T )  3  E
c
 Blackbody Radiation Laws:
Classical Physics View
• In classical physics, the energy of an oscillator is
continuous, so the average is calculated as:
  E


 EP( E )dE  EP0 e

k BT
dE
E  0

 0
E
 k BT
 
 P( E )dE  P0 e
kBT
dE
0 0

E

P( E)  Pis
0 e the Boltzmann distribution
k BT

E  k BT
 Blackbody Radiation:
Classical Physics
View
• This gives the
Rayleigh-Jeans
Law
8 V 2 8 V 2
I ( , T )  3
E  3
k BT Predicts infinite intensity at very
c c
short wavelengths (higher
frequencies) – “Ultraviolet
Agrees well with Catastrophe”
experiment long Predicts diverging total emission
wavelength (low by black bodies
frequency) region
No “fixes” could be found using
classical physics
 Max Planck

MAX
PLANCK

The Early
Quantum
Theory
 Planck’s Hypothesis
Max Planck postulated that
A system undergoing simple harmonic motion with
frequency ν can only have energies

E  n  nh
where n = 1, 2, 3,…
and h is Planck’s constant
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
 Planck’s Theory
8 V 2
• As before: I ( , T )   E
c3
• Now energy levels are discrete,   h

• So n

P ( E )  P0 e kBT

n
 
 n e kBT

• Sum to obtain average energy: E  n0

n 
 
e k BT
e k BT  1
n 0

8 V 2  8 V 2 h
I ( , T )  
 h
• c3 c3
e k BT  1 e kB T
1
 Blackbody Radiation

8 V 2
h
I ( ) 
c 3
 h 
exp   1
 k BT 
c is the speed of light, kB is Boltzmann’s
constant, h is Planck’s constant, and T is
the temperature
 Planck’s Theory
8 V2
h
I ( ) 
c3 exp  h / k BT   1
Blackbody Radiation from the Sun
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Plank’s curve IBB  T4
λmax
IBB = T4

Stefan-Boltzmann constant
 =5.67×10-8 J/m2K4

More generally:
I = T4
e is the emissivity

Wien's Displacement Law

peak T = 2.898×10-3 m K

At T = 5778 K:
peak = 5.015×10-7 m = 5,015 A
The photoelectric effect
Particle like of EMW

To be a wave or a particle? That

is the question.
The setup
• An adjustable voltage
is applied. Voltage
can be forward or
reverse biased
(which slows down
the electrons)

• Photoelectrons return
to cathode through an
ammeter which
records the current
 Quick overview around
• X-ray machine hits target with electrons
and EM radiation flies out
• In the photoelectric effect, you hit target
with EM radiation and electrons fly out!
• The electrons ejected from the target
are called “photoelectrons”
 To Photoelectric Effect
(Classics and Modern)
“Classical” Method What if we try this ?
Increase energy by Vary wavelength, fixed amplitude
increasing amplitude

electrons electrons
emitted ? emitted ?
No
No
No Yes, with
low KE
No
Yes, with
No high KE

No electrons were emitted until the frequency of the light exceeded

a critical frequency, at which point electrons were emitted from
the surface! (Recall: small l  large n)
 Photoelectric Effect
(Classical View)
Classically,

A layer of sodium 1 atom thick and 1 m2 contains about 1019

atoms, so if the incident light is absorbed in the uppermost
25
atomic layer, each atom receives energy at an average rate 10
W. Need over a month for an atom to accumulate energy.

Increasing the energy of an EM wave is by increasing the

intensity (e.g. brightness). More intense of the light, as EM
wave, greaten energy of electron

Energy a A2
Butthis
But thisdoesn’t
doesn’twork
work??
??
 Some experimental results:
• If photoelectrons get ejected when you shine
monochromatic light on the target, the current
increases when you increase the intensity
(brighter light = more photoelectrons)
• BUT…above a “cutoff wavelength” no
photoelectrons get ejected no matter how
great the intensity of the incident radiation
• AND…for wavelengths below the cutoff,
decreasing the radiation to very low
intensities does not completely eliminate the
production of photo electrons
Stopping voltage vs. Frequency
eV(stopping)
(c/l)

frequency
 Interpretation
• Slope is same for all targets
• y intercept is different for different
target materials.
eV  h  h0
• h0   is the “work function” of the
metal, the mininum amount of energy
required to remove an electron.
• h=6.63 x 10-34 is Planck’s Constant!
 Interpretation (continued)
• Planck’s EM “quanta” turn out to be real after
all! (?)
• Light comes in energy packets equal to hf
• Each packet acts more like a particle than a
wave
• These light “particles” are called photons
• Rather than continuously absorbing wave
radiation the target is being bombarded by
photons like tiny billiard balls!
Concluding statements
• Einstein figured out the photoelectric effect in
1905 (the same year he developed the theory
of special relativity and explained Brownian
Motion). This is what he got the Nobel prize
for.
• I like to think of the the photoelectric
equation in terms of conservation of energy
light energy ejecting electron & KE

h  h0  K e
 A note about units of energy
Joules: good for macroscopic energy conversions
But when talking about energy of single electrons Joules is
inconvenient… (too big)
Define new energy unit (the electron-volt (eV))
= kinetic energy gained by an electron when
accelerate through 1 volt of potential difference

KE = - U
0V 1V
+ = - q V
F = - (- e)*(1V)
+
+ = + (e)*(1V) = 1.6 x 10-19 J
E path
+ = 1eV

38
 Photon Energies:
Typical energies
Each photon has: Energy = Planks constant * Frequency
In Joule In eV

E  h  (6.626.1034 Js).( s 1 ) E  h  (4.14.1015 eV.s).( s 1 )

c c
E  h  (1.99.1025 J.m).( m) 1 Eh  (1240eV.nm).( nm) 1
 
Red Photon: 650 nm Ephoton = 1240 eV.nm = 1.91 eV
650 nm
Work functions of metals (in eV):
Aluminum 4.08 eV Cesium 2.1 Lead 4.14 Potassium 2.3
Beryllium 5.0 eV Cobalt 5.0 Magnesium 3.68 Platinum 6.35
Cadmium 4.07 eV Copper 4.7 Mercury 4.5 Selenium 5.11
Calcium 2.9 Gold 5.1 Nickel 5.01 Silver 4.73
Carbon 4.81 Iron 4.5 Niobium 4.3 Sodium 2.28
Uranium 3.6
39
Zinc 4.3
Compton Scattering
 Compton
COMPTON SCATTERING
Compton (1923) measured intensity of scattered X-rays
from solid target, as function of wavelength for different
angles. He won the 1927 Nobel prize.

Collimator Crystal
X-ray source
(selects angle) (measure
wavelenght)

θ
Target

Result: peak in scattered radiation Detector

shifts to longer wavelength than
source. Amount depends on θ (but not
on the target material).
A.H. Compton, Phys. Rev. 22 409 (1923)
 COMPTON SCATTERING (cont)
Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in positions
of charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and
wavelength as incident radiation.
Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically

Incident light wave Oscillating Emitted light wave

electron
Compton’s explanation: “billiard ball” collisions between particles
of light (X-ray photons) and electrons in the material

Before After p 
Incoming
scattered photon
photon
θ
p
Electron
pe scattered electron
COMPTON SCATTERING (cont)
Before After p 
Incoming scattered photon
photon θ
p
Electro
n pe scattered electron

Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum

hˆ
h  me c  h    p c  m c
2 2 2
e e 
2 4 1/ 2
p  i  p   p e

From this Compton derived the change in wavelength
h
     1  cos 
me c
 c  1  cos    0
h
c  Compton wavelength   2.4 1012 m
me c
 COMPTON SCATTERING
(cont)
Note that, at all angles
there is also an unshifted
peak.

This comes from a collision

between the X-ray photon
and the nucleus of the atom

h
     1  cos    0
mN c

since mN  me
 Light
• To be a wave or a particle?
That is the question