What is Grammar?

 The study of language that deals with the forms and

structures of words (morphology), with their
customary arrangement in phrases and sentences
(syntax), and with language sounds (phonology) and
word meanings (semantics)
 The systematic study and description of a language
 The study of the way words are used to form
sentences
Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects
Always Always Singular
Singular Plural or Plural
anyone every nobody both all
anybody everyone nothing few more
anything everybody someone manymost
each everything somebody several some
either neither something any
none
Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects
 Either of the two applicants is qualified.
 Everybody in the lottery has an equal chance.
 Few of the workers are applying for stock
shares.
 Neither of the suggestions is particularly
helpful.
Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects
Prepositional phrases after the indefinite pronouns all,
more, and most become important in determining
agreement.
 Most of the letters are finished.
 Most of the work is completed.
Each and every followed by nouns take singular verbs.
 Every man, woman, and child is affected by the
outbreak.
 Each person deserves a second chance.
Collective Nouns as Subjects
When a collective noun operates as a single unit, its
verb should be singular. When the elements of the
collective noun operate separately, the verb should be
plural.
 Our faculty has approved the proposal.
(Faculty is operating as a single unit.)
 The council were sharply divided over the budget.
(Council members were acting separately.)
Subjects joined by and
When one subject joined to another by the word
and, the subject is plural and requires a plural
verb.
 Carolyn and her brother work at Baker’s.
 The proposed law and its amendment are
before the legislature.
Subjects joined by or or nor
When two or more subjects are joined by or or nor, the
verb should agree with the closer subject.
 Neither the supervisor nor the clerks know the order
number.
 Either Leslie or you are in charge of ordering the
supplies.
 The manufacturer or the distributors carry spare
parts.
Intervening Elements
Groups of words introduced by as well as, in addition
to, such as, including, and together with do not contain
the subject of the sentence.
 The priceless book, as well as other valuable
documents, was lost in the fire. (The singular subject
book agrees with the singular verb was lost.)
 Our president, together with his entire staff of
employees, sends his greetings. (The singular subject
president agrees with the singular verb sends.)
There and Here
In sentences beginning with there or here, look for the true
subject after the verb. As adverbs, here and there cannot
function as subjects.
 There are four candidates for the position.
(The subject candidates follows the verb are.)
 Here is the fuel oil consumption report.
(The subject report follows the verb is.)
Inverted Sentence Order
Look for the subject after the verb in inverted sentences
and in questions.
 Attending the conference are salespeople from four
states. (Verb precedes subject.)
 How important are salary, benefits, and job security?
(Verb precedes subjects.)
 How do law and ethics relate to everyday business?
(Verb precedes subjects.)
Fractions, Portions
Fractions and portions may be singular or plural
depending on the nouns to which they refer.
 Two thirds of the cassettes are satisfactory.
 Over half of the contract was ratified.
 Part of the delegates are in favor of the plan.
 Part of the proposal is ambiguous.
Who Clauses
In who clauses introduced by one of, the verb is usually plural
because it refers to a plural antecedent. In who clauses
introduced by only one of, the verb is singular.
 Mariz is one of those managers who always support the
employees.
 John is one of those people who are late sleepers.
 Margaret is the only one of the girls who is prepared.
Verbs must agree in person with nouns or pronouns to which
they refer.
 It is you who are responsible for security.
Could it be I who am to blame?
Phrases and Clauses as Subjects
Use s singular verb when the subject of the sentence is
a phrase or clause.
 To learn about the stock in the market is fascinating.
 That verbs must agree with subjects is accepted.
 Collecting key chains makes her happy.
 What you see is what you get.
Introductory Verbal Phrases
Introductory verbal phrases must be followed by the words they
logically modify. Such phrases can create confusion or unintended
humor when placed incorrectly in a sentence.
Illogical: Slipping on the ice, his back was injured.
Logical: Slipping on the ice, he injured his back.
Illogical: Turning on the fan, papers flew about the office.
Logical: Turning on the fan, I caused the papers to fly about the
office.
Illogical: After answering the telephone, the doorbell began to ring.
Logical: After answering the telephone, Jeremy heard the
doorbell ring.
Awkward Possessives
When the addition of an apostrophe results in an awkward
construction, show ownership by using a prepositional phrase.
Awkward: my sister’s attorney’s advice
Improved: advice of my sister’s attorney
Awkward: your neighbor’s doctor’s telephone number
Improved: telephone number of your neighbor’s
doctor
Awkward: my instructor, Liza Soberano’s, office
Improved: office of my instructor, Liza Soberano
Compound Nouns
Make compound nouns possessive by adding an
apostrophe or an apostrophe and s to the final
element of the compound.
 his father-in-law’s property
 onlookers’ interest
 notary public’s seal
 editor-in-chief’s column
Separate or Combined Ownership
When two names express separate ownership, make both
names possessive. When two names express combined
ownership, make only the second name possessive.
 the husband and wife’s business
(Combined ownership)
 my aunt and uncle’s grandchildren
(Combined ownership)
 Daniel’s and Kathryn’s movies (Separate ownership)
 landlords’ and tenants’ rights (Separate ownership)
Reflexive (or Compound Personal)
Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns that end in –self emphasize or reflect
their antecedents (the nouns or pronouns previously
mentioned).

The president himself presented the award.

(Emphasizes president)
The matter should resolve itself.
(Reflects matter)
Reflexive (or Compound Personal)
Pronouns
Errors result when reflexive pronouns are used instead of
personal pronouns. If no previously mentioned noun or
pronoun is stated in the sentence, use a personal pronoun
instead of a reflexive pronoun.
 Bring the proposed agenda to either Brad or me.
(Not myself)
 Anne Curtis and I analyzed the possibilities.
(Not myself)
Please note that hisself and themself are substandard and
should always be avoided.
Making Pronoun References Clear
Do not use a pronoun if your listener or reader might not be able
to identify the noun it represents.
Unclear: Bea told Julia that she should verify the balance.
Clear: Bea told Julia to verify the balance.
Unclear: In that restaurant, they don’t allow you to
smoke.
Clear: The restaurant management does not allow its
patrons to smoke. OR Smoking is not allowed in that
restaurant.
Unclear: Gerald’s boss said that he deserved a raise.
Clear: Gerald’s boss said that Joshua deserved a raise.
 Making Pronouns Agree with
Their Antecedents in Gender
Pronouns exhibit one of the three genders: masculine
(male), feminine (female) or neuter (neither masculine
or feminine). Pronouns must agree with their
antecedents in gender.
 John read his assignment. (Masculine gender)
 Nancy studied her notes. (Feminine gender)
 The idea had its limits. (Neuter gender)
Making Pronouns Agree with Their
Antecedents in Number
Pronouns must agree in number with the nouns they
represent. For example, if a pronoun replaces a singular
noun, the pronoun must be singular.
 Michelangelo felt that he was a failure.
(Singular antecedent and pronoun)
 Great artists often doubt their success.
(Plural antecedent and pronoun)
 Making Pronouns Agree with
Their Antecedents in Number
If a pronoun refers to two nouns joined by and, the
pronoun must be plural.
 The president and the stockholder discussed their
differences. (Plural antecedent and pronoun)
 James and Nadine asked that suggestions be sent to
them. (Plural antecedent and pronoun)
 Making Pronouns Agree with Their
Antecedents in Number
Disregard phrases such as those introduced by as well as, in
addition to, and together with. Find the true antecedent and make
the pronoun agree with it.
 The general, together with the chiefs of staff, is considering
his strategy carefully. (Singular antecedent and pronoun)
 The chiefs of staff, along with the general, have submitted
their plans. (Plural antecedent and pronoun)
 A female member of the group of protesting students
demanded that she be treated equally.
(Singular antecedent and pronoun)
Antecedents joined by or or nor
When antecedents are joined by or or nor, the pronoun
should agree with the antecedent closer to it.

 Either Alice or Vicky left her coat in the office.

 Neither the manager nor the employees objected to
their salary cuts.
Indefinite Pronouns as
Antecedents
Pronouns such as anyone, something, and anybody are called indefinite
because they refer to no specific person or object. Some indefinite
pronouns are always singular; others are always plural.

Always Always
Singular Plural
anybody everything both
anyone neither few
anything nobody many
each no one several
either nothing
everybody somebody
everyone someone
Indefinite Pronouns as
Antecedents
When indefinite pronouns function as antecedents of pronouns,
make certain that the pronoun agrees with its antecedent. Do not
let prepositional phrases obscure the true antecedent.
 Somebody in the men’s league left his lights on.
 Each of the corporations had its own home office.
 Few of the vendors missed the show to demonstrate their
equipment.
 Several of our branches communicate their documents
electronically.
Collective Nouns as Antecedents
Collective nouns refer to a collection of people, animals, or objects.
Such words may be either singular or plural. When a collective noun
operates as a unit, it is singular. When the elements of a collective
noun operate separately, the collective noun is plural.
 Our staff reaffirmed its position on bargaining.
(Staff operating as one unit)
The jury were divided by their opinions.
(Jury operating as individual)
However, if a collective noun is to be in a plural sense, the sentence
can often be made to sound less awkward by the addition of plural
noun.
 The jury members were divided in their opinions.
If and Wish Clauses
When a statement that is doubtful or contrary to fact is
introduced by if, as if, or wish, the subjunctive form were is
substituted for the indicative form was.
 If Lori were here, we could proceed. (Lori is not here.)
 She acts as if she were the boos. (She is not the boss.)
 Jose wishes he were able to type. (Jose is not able to type.)
But if the statement could possibly be true, use the indicative
form.
 If Chris was in the audience, I missed him.
(Chris might have been in the audience.)
 Wordy Phrases Concise Substitutes
at the present time now
at this point in time now
due to the fact that because
for the purpose of to
in all probability probably
in connection with for
in spite of the fact that even though
in the amount of for
in the event that if
in the near future soon
in the neighborhood of about
in view of the fact that since
with regard to about
Revising Wordy Phrases
Revise wordy sentences to make them more concise.
Wordy: Due to the fact that fire damaged our
distribution center, we must delay some
shipments.
Revised: Because fire damaged our distribution center,
we must delay some shipments.
Wordy: My family will visit your place in the near
future.
Revised: My family will visit your place soon.
Redundant Phrases
advance warning each and every last and final
alter or change end result new changes
assemble together few in number past history
basic fundamentals great majority personal opinion
collect together integral part true facts
free gifts proposed plan refer back
return back red in color visible to the eye
attached herewith first and foremost short in size
Eliminating Redundant Words
Eliminate repetitive or redundant words.
Wordy: We studied the past history of each and every
potential donor.
Revised: We studied the history of every potential
donor.
Wordy: Please collect together all the true facts
before proceeding.
Revised: Please collect all the facts before proceeding.
Double Comparison
This is the use of two comparative forms together.
Alexander is more taller than Franklin.
 Alexander is taller than Franklin.
This brownie is more sweeter than this cookie.
 This brownie is sweeter than this cookie.
A leopard runs more faster than a deer.
 A leopard runs faster than a deer.
Double Negatives
To correct double negatives, eliminate one of the
negatives.
Incorrect: Calling her won’t do no good.
Correct: Calling her will do no good.
Correct: Calling her won’t do any good.
Incorrect: We couldn’t hardly believe the news report.
Correct: We couldn’t believe the news report.
Correct: We could hardly believe the news report.
Special Cases
The following adjectives and adverbs cause difficulty for some writers
and speakers.
almost (adv.-nearly): Almost (not Most) everybody wants to work.
most (adj.-greatest in amount): Most people want to work.
farther (adv.-actual distance): How much farther is the market?
further (adv.-additionally): To argue the matter further is fruitless.
sure (adj.-certain): He is sure to victory.
surely (adv.-undoubtedly): He will surely be victorious.
later (adv.-after expected time): The contract arrived later in the day.
latter (adj.-the second of two things): Of the two options, I prefer the
latter.
fewer (adj.-refers to numbers): Fewer requests for tour were
granted this year.
less (adj.-refers to mass items that cannot be counted and to
singular nouns): Less remains than we anticipated.
real (adj.-actual, genuine): The real power in the company lies with
the CEO.
really (adv.-actually, truly): Jan wondered whether she could really
learn to operate the equipment in five hours.
good (adj.-desirable): A number of good plans were submitted.
well (adv.-satisfactorily): Amy did well on the test.
well (adj.-healthy): Jamel feels quite well since the operation.
 Absolute Modifiers
Adjectives and adverbs that name perfect complete
(absolute) qualities cannot logically be compared.
round dead complete
perfect true right
unique correct straight
perpendicular endless unanimous
Use of Preposition
addicted to
Janet was addicted to gummy bears.
agree to (a proposal)
Did they agree to the plan for splitting shifts?
agree with (a person)
In this matter, I certainly agree with you.
angry at (a thing)
Customers are understandably angry at the delay.
angry with (a person)
How can you be angry with the child?
buy from
You may buy from any one of several vendors.
capable of
She is capable of remarkable accomplishments.
comply with
We must comply with governmental regulations.
contrast with
The white boat contrasts with the blue ocean.
desire for
A desire for wealth may create greed.
differ from (things)
Checking accounts differ from savings accounts.
differ with (person)
I differ with you in small points only.
disagree with
Do you disagree with him?
guard against
Guard against infection by covering wounds.
interest in
Jerry has a great interest in personal computers.
prefer to
Do you prefer to work four-day week?
responsible for
William is responsible for locking the building.
sensitive to
Mrs. Choy is unusually sensitive to cold.
similar to
Your term paper topic is similar to mine.
standing in (not on) line
How long have you been standing in line?
talk to (tell something)
The speaker talked to the large group.
talk with (exchange remarks)
After his lecture, the speaker talked with the club members
informally.
Parallelism
Words in a pair or a series should have a parallel
structure. By balancing the items in a pair or a series so
that they have the same structure, you will make your
sentences clearer and easier to read.
x Fran spends her free time reading books, listening to music,
and she works in the garden.
 Fran spends her free time reading books, listening to music,
and working in the garden.
(A balanced series of –ing words: reading, listening, working)
x After the camping trip I was exhausted, irritable, and wanted

to eat.
 After the camping trip I was exhausted, irritable, and hungry.
(A balanced series of descriptive words: exhausted, irritable,
Thank you!