Circuit Theorems

Circuit Theorems Overview

 Introduction
 Linearity
 Superpositions
 Source Transformation
 Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
 Maximum Power Transfer
INTRODUCTION

A large Simplify
complex circuits circuit analysis

Circuit Theorems

‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem

‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source transformation ‧ max. power transfer
Linearity Property

A linear element or circuit satisfies the properties of

 Additivity: requires that the response to a sum of

inputs is the sum of the responses to each input
applied separately.
If v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R

then applying (i1 + i2)

v = (i1 + i2) R = i1R + i2R = v1 + v2

Linearity Property

 
 Homogeneity:
  
If you multiply the input (i.e. current) by some
constant K, then the output response (voltage) is
scaled by the same constant.
If v1 = i1R
then K v1 =K i1R
Linearity Property

 A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly

related (or directly proportional) ito its input.

V0
I0 v

Suppose vs = 10 V gives i = 2 A. According to

the linearity principle, vs = 5 V will give i = 1 A.
Linearity Property - Example

i0

Solve for v0 and i0 as a function of Vs

Linearity Property – Example
(continued)
Linearity Property - Example
Ladder Circuit
3A
5A

2A +6V- +3V- 1A
2A
+ + +
14 V 8V 5V
- - -

This shows that assuming I0 = 1 A gives Is = 5 A; the actual source

current of 15 A will give I0 = 3 A as the actual value.
Superposition

 The superposition principle states that the

voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic
sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
Steps to apply superposition principle

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find

the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
using nodal or mesh analysis.
 Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources; make it
equal to zero voltage
 Turn off current sources = open current sources; make it
equal to zero current
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
 Dependent sources are left intact.
Superposition - Problem

12V
2k 4mA
– +

2mA 1k 2k

I0
2mA Source Contribution

2k

2mA 1k 2k

I’0

I’0 = -4/3 mA
4mA Source Contribution

2k 4mA

1k 2k
I’’0
I’’0 = 0
12V Source Contribution

12V
2k
– +

1k 2k
I’’’0

I’’’0 = -4 mA
Final Result

I’0 = -4/3 mA
I’’0 = 0
I’’’0 = -4 mA

I0 = I’0+ I’’0+ I’’’0 = -16/3 mA

Example

 find v using superposition

one independent source at a time,
dependent source remains

KCL: i = i1 + i2

Ohm's law: i = v1 / 1 = v1

KVL: 5 = i (1 + 1) + i2(2)

KVL: 5 = i(1 + 1) + i1(2) + 2v1

10 = i(4) + (i1+i2)(2) + 2v1

10 = v1(4) + v1(2) + 2v1

v1 = 10/8 V
Consider the other independent source

KCL: i = i1 + i2

KVL: i(1 + 1) + i2(2) + 5 = 0

i2(2) + 5 = i1(2) + 2v2
Ohm's law: i(1) = v2
v2(2) + i2(2) +5 = 0 => i2 = -(5+2v2)/2
i2(2) + 5 = i1(2) + 2v2
-2v2 = (i - i2)(2) + 2v2
-2v2 = [v2 + (5+2v2)/2](2) + 2v2
-4v2 = 2v2 + 5 +2v2
-8v2 = 5 => v2 = - 5/8 V

from superposition: v = -5/8 + 10/8

v = 5/8 V
Source Transformation

 A source transformation is the process of

replacing a voltage source vs in series with a
resistor R by a current source is in parallel
with a resistor R, or vice versa
Source Transformation

vs
vs  is R or is 
R
Source Transformation

Vs  Rs I s Vs
Is 
Rs
Source Transformation

 Equivalent sources can be used to simplify

the analysis of some circuits.
 A voltage source in series with a resistor is
transformed into a current source in parallel
with a resistor.
 A current source in parallel with a resistor is
transformed into a voltage source in series
with a resistor.
Example

 Use source transformation to find vo in the

circuit in Fig 4.17.
Example

Fig 4.18
Example

we use current division in Fig.4.18(c) to get

2
i (2)  0.4A
28
and

vo  8i  8(0.4)  3.2V
Example 4.7

 Find vx in Fig.4.20 using source

transformation
Example 4.7

 3  5i  v x  18  0

Applying KVL around the loop in Fig 4.21(b) gives

 3  5i  v x  18  0 (4.7.1)
Appling KVL to the loop containing only the 3V voltage source, the
resistor, and vx yields
(4.7.2)
 3  1i  v x  0  v x  3  i
Example 4.7

Substituting this into Eq.(4.7.1), we obtain

15  5i  3  0  i  4.5A
Alternatively
 v x  4i  v x  18  0  i  4.5A
thus

v x  3  i  7.5V
Thevenin’s Theorem

 Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or

independent) and resistors can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit containing a single
voltage source and a single resistor.
 Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can
replace arbitrarily complicated networks with
simple networks for purposes of analysis.
Implications

 We use Thevenin’s theorem to justify the

concept of input and output resistance for
amplifier circuits.
 We model transducers as equivalent sources
and resistances.
 We model stereo speakers as an equivalent
resistance.
Independent Sources (Thevenin)

RTh

Voc +
–

Circuit with Thevenin equivalent

independent sources circuit
No Independent Sources

RTh

Circuit without Thevenin equivalent

independent sources circuit
Introduction

 Any Thevenin equivalent circuit is in turn

equivalent to a current source in parallel with
a resistor [source transformation].
 A current source in parallel with a resistor is
called a Norton equivalent circuit.
 Finding a Norton equivalent circuit requires
essentially the same process as finding a
Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Computing Thevenin Equivalent

 Basic steps to determining Thevenin

equivalent are
– Find voc
– Find RTh
 Thevenin/Norton Analysis

1. Pick a good breaking point in the circuit (cannot split a dependent

source and its control variable).

2. Thevenin: Compute the open circuit voltage, VOC.

Norton: Compute the short circuit current, ISC.

For case 3(b) both VOC=0 and ISC=0 [so skip step 2]
Thevenin/Norton Analysis

3. Compute the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh

(a) If there are only independent sources, then short circuit
all the voltage sources and open circuit the current sources
(just like superposition).
(b) If there are only dependent sources, then must use a test
voltage or current source in order to calculate
RTh = VTest/Itest
(c) If there are both independent and dependent sources,
then compute RTh from VOC/ISC.
 Thevenin/Norton Analysis

4. Thevenin: Replace circuit with VOC in series with RTh

Norton: Replace circuit with ISC in parallel with RTh

Note: for 3(b) the equivalent network is merely RTh , that is, no
voltage (or current) source.

Only steps 2 & 4 differ from Thevenin & Norton!