CONTROL ENGINEERING

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Illustrations
 Why Control?

• Modern society have sophisticated control

systems which are crucial to their successful
operation.
• Reasons to build control systems:
– Power amplification
– Remote control
– Convenience of input form
– Compensation for disturbance
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Illustrations Cont
 Examples of Modern Control Systems

(a) Automobile steering

control system.
(b) The driver uses the
difference between the
actual and the desired
direction of travel
to generate a controlled
adjustment of the
steering wheel.
(c) Typical direction-
of-travel response.

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 Examples of Modern Control Systems

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 Examples of Modern Control Systems

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 Examples of Modern Control Systems

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 The Future of Control Systems

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 Manual Vs Automatic Control

• Control is a process of causing a system variable such as

temperature or position to conform to some desired value or
trajectory, called reference value or trajectory.
• For example, driving a car implies controlling the vehicle to
follow the desired path to arrive safely at a planned destination.
i. If you are driving the car yourself, you are performing manual control of
the car.

ii. If you use design a machine, or use a computer to do it, then you have
built an automatic control system.
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 The Future of Control Systems

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 Control System Design

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Definitions:
• System: A system is a combination or an arrangement of
different physical components which act together as an
entire unit to achieve certain objective.
• Control System: To control means to regulate, to direct or to
command. Hence a control system is an arrangement of
different physical elements connected in such a manner so
as to regulate, direct or command itself or some other
system.

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• Plant: The portion of a system which is to be
controlled or regulated is called a plant or the
process.
• Controller: The element of the system itself or
external to the system which controls the plant or
the process is called controller.
• Input: It is an applied signal or an excitation signal
applied to a control system from an external energy
source in order to produce specific output.
• Output: It is the particular signal of interest or the
actual response obtained from a control system
when applied to it.
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 • Disturbances: It is a signal which tends to
adversely affect the value of the output of a
system. If such a disturbance is generated
within the system itself, it is called an internal
disturbance. The disturbance generated outside
the system acting as an extra input to the
system in addition to its normal input,
affecting the output adversely is called an
external disturbance.

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Classification of control systems:

1.Natural control systems: The biological systems,

systems inside human being are of natural type.

2.Manmade control systems: The various systems, we

are using in our day to day life are designed and
manufactured by human beings.

3.Combinational control systems: Combinational

control system is one, having combination of natural
and manmade together i.e., driver driving a vehicle.

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 4. Time varying systems: Time varying control
systems are those in which parameters of the
systems are varying with time. It is not dependent
on whether input and output are functions of time
or not. E.g. mass of space vehicle.

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 4. Time invariant systems: If the inputs and outputs
are functions of time but the parameters of the
system are independent of time, which are not
varying with time and are constants, then system
is said to be time invariant. E.g. resistance,
inductance and capacitance of a electrical
network.

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 6. Linear systems: A control system is said to be
linear if it satisfies the following properties.
a. The principle of superposition is applicable to the
system.
b. The differential equation describing the system is
linear having its coefficients as constants.
c. The output or response varies linearly with the
input.

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 7. Nonlinear systems: A system is said to be
nonlinear if,
a. It does not satisfy the principle of superposition.
b. The equations describing the system are nonlinear
in nature.
c. The output does not vary linearly.

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 8. Continuous time control systems: In this all system
variables are the functions of a continuous time
variable ‘t’.
9. Discrete time control systems: In these systems
one or more system variables are known only at
certain discrete interval of time.

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 10.Deterministic and stochastic control systems: A
control system is said to be deterministic when its
response to input as well as behaviour to external
disturbances are predictable and repeatable. If such
response is unpredictable, system is said to be
stochastic in nature.
11.Lumped parameter and distributed parameter control
systems: Control system that can be described by
ordinary differential equation is called lumped
parameter control system. Control systems that can be
described by partial differential equations are called
distributed parameter control systems.
12.Single input single output and Multiple input multiple
output systems:
13.Open loop and closed loop control systems:
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Open Loop System:
A system in which output is dependent on input but
controlling action or input is totally independent of the
output of the system, is called an Open Loop System

Reference input CONTROLLER u PROCESS output

Advantages:
1.Simple in construction.
2.Very much convenient when output is difficult to
measure.
3.Easy from maintenance point of view.
4.Not troubled with the problems of stability.
5.Simple to design and hence economical.
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Disadvantages:
1.Inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy of such
systems are totally dependent on the accurate
calibration of the controller.
2.These give inaccurate results if there are variations
in the external environment i.e., such systems cannot
sense environmental changes.
3.They cannot sense internal disturbances in the
system, after the controller stage.
4.To maintain the quality and accuracy, recalibration
of the controller is necessary from time to time.

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Applications of Open Loop System:
1.Automatic Toaster System:
P
o
w
e
r

i
n
p
u
t

Heating
Relay or
Desired time process of Actual toast
Controller
bread

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2. Traffic Light controller:
P
o
w
e
r

Relay or Actual traffic

Desired time Light
Controller control

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Closed Loop System:
A system in which the controlling action or input is
somehow dependent on the output or changes in
output is called closed loop system.
Feedback: Feedback is a property of the system by
which it permits the output to be compared with the
reference input to generate the error signal based on
which the appropriate controlling action can be
decided.

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Advantages:
1.Very high accuracy because controller modifies and
manipulates the actuating signal such that error in the
system will be zero.
2.They sense environmental changes, as well as internal
disturbances and accordingly modifies the error.
3.There is reduced effect of nonlinearities and distortions.
4.Bandwidth of such system i.e., operating frequency zone
for such system is very high.
Disadvantages:
1.These systems are complicated and time consuming
from design point of view and hence costlier.
2.Due to feedback, system tries to correct the error from
time to time. Tendency to overcorrect the error may
cause oscillations.
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 Applications of Closed Loop System:
1. Human being

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 Applications of Closed Loop System:
2. Home heating system

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 Applications of Closed Loop System:
3. d.c. motor speed control

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 Applications of Closed Loop System:
4. missile launching system

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 Design Example

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 Design Example

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Requirements of an Ideal Control Systems:
1.Accuracy
Accuracy must be very high as error arising should be
corrected. Accuracy can be improved by the use of feedback
element
2. Sensitivity
A good control system senses quick changes in the output due
to an environment, parametric changes, internal and external
disturbances.
3.External disturbance or noise
Noise is a unwanted signal and a good control system should
be insensitive to these type of disturbances.

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 4.Stability
•The stable systems has bounded input and bounded output. A good
control system should response to the undesirable changes in the
stability
5.Bandwidth
•To obtain a good frequency response, bandwidth of a system
should be large.
6. Speed
A good control system should have high speed that is the output of
the system should be fast as possible.
7. Oscillations
•For a good control system oscillation in the output should be
constant

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Controller:
• The controller is an element which accepts the error
in some form and decides the proper corrective
action.

• The output of the controller is then applied to the

process or final control element. This brings output
back to its desired set point value.

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 • The controller is the heart of a control system.

• The accuracy of the entire system depends on

how sensitive is the controller to the error
detected and how it is manipulating such an
error.

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 On-off control
• For some systems, on-off signaling is sufficient
• For example, a thermostat, when the heater is either
on or off, and early cruise-control systems
– Could do airflow or speed control also
– More modern systems do it

cs156
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 On-off Controllers
• Simple
• Cheap
Chapter 8

• Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators

• Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear
on control valve.

Examples
•Batch process control (PLC = programmable logic controller)
•Solenoid in home heating unit
•Sprinkler systems
•Cruise control?
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 Three Mode (PID) Controller
• Proportional
• Integral
• Derivative
Proportional Control
Chapter 8

• Define an error signal, e, by e = Ysp – Ym

where
Ysp = set point
Ym = measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)

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Properties of Controller:

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Classification of controllers:
Proportional control mode: In this the output of the
controller is proportional to the error e(t).
The range of the error which covers 0% to 100%
controller output is called proportional band.
Though there exists linear relation between controller
output and the error, the controller output should not
be zero, otherwise the process will come to halt.

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 Hence there exists some controller output mo for
the zero error. Hence mathematically
proportional control mode is expressed as
m(t) = Kp e(t) + mo

Where Kp = proportional gain constant

mo = controller output with zero error

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The error can be positive or negative because error can
be less or greater than reference set point r.

If the controlled variable i.e., input to the

controller increases, causing increase in the
controller output, the action is called direct action.

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 If the controlled variable decreases, causing
decrease in the controller output, the action is
called reverse action.

So if e(t) is –ve then Kp e(t) gets subtracted from

po and if e(t) is positive, then Kp e(t) gets
added to po, this is reverse action.

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Characteristics of Proportional mode:
1.When the error is zero, the controller output is
constant equal to mo.
2.If the error occurs, then for every 1% error the
correction of Kp% is achieved. If error is positive,
Kp% correction gets added to po and if error is
negative, Kp% correction gets subtracted from p o.
3.The band of error exists for which the output of the
controller is between 0% to 100% without
saturation.
4.The gain Kp and the error band PB are inversely
proportional to each other.
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Applications:
1.Manual reset of the operating point is possible.
2.Load changes are small.

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 Derivative Controler

• Ideal derivative action

 Used to improve dynamic response
of the controlled variable
 Derivative kick (use -dym/dt )


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 • When derivative control is applied, the
controller senses the rate of change of the
error signal and contributes a component of
the output signal that is proportional to a
derivative of the error signal.

D controller output = KD × rate of change of

error

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 • Figure demonstrates the response of derivative
control to sinusoidal error inputs. The output is
always in a direction to oppose changes in error,
both away from and toward the set point, which
in this example results in a 90 degree
phase shift. 

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 • The derivative control mode produces an
output based on the rate of change of the error.
It produces more control action if the error
changes at a faster rate; if there is no change in
the error, the derivative action is zero. 

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 Integral control mode:

• The need for manual reset led to the

development of automatic reset, known as the
integral control mode.
• The function of the integral control mode is to
increment or decrement the controller’s output
over time to reduce the error, as long as there
is any error present

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Integral control mode:
In this controller, the value of the controller output m(t) is
changed at a rate which is proportional to the actuating
error signal e(t). Mathematically it is expressed as,

Where, Ki = constant relating error and rate or integral

constant.
Integrating the above equation, actual controller output at any
time t can be obtained as,

Where, p(0) = controller output when integral action starts

i.e. at t = 0.
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Step response of integral mode:

It can be seen that when error is positive, the output p(t) ramps
up. For zero error, there is no change in the output. And
when error is negative, the output p(t) ramps down

.
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Characteristics of Integral mode:

1.If error is zero, the output remains at a fixed value

equal to what it was.
2.If the error is not zero, then the output begins to
increase or decrease, at a rate Ki% per second for
every +or-1% of error.

The inverse of Ki is called integral time Ti.

Ti = 1/Ki
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Proportional-Integral Mode (PI control mode):
This is composite control mode obtained by combining the
proportional mode and the integral mode.
The mathematical expression for such a composite
control is,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output at t = 0.

The important advantage of this control is that one to one
correspondence of proportional mode is available while the
offset gets eliminated due to integral mode, the integral part
of such composite control provides a reset of the zero error
output after a load change occurs.
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Consider the load change occurring at t = t 1 and due to
which error varies as shown in fig. The controller
output changes suddenly by amount Vp due to the
proportional action. After that controller output
changes linearly with respect to time at a rate K p/Ti.
The reset rate is defined as the reciprocal of T i.

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Characteristic of PI mode:
1.When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed
at the value that integral mode had when the error
went to zero. This is nothing but p(0).
2.When the error is not zero, proportional mode adds
the correction while the integral term starts
increasing or decreasing from its initial value
depending upon the reverse or direct action.
3.It improves the steady state efficiency.
4.It increases the rise time so response becomes slow.

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 5. It filters out the high frequency noise.
6. It makes the response oscillatory.

Applications: PI mode completely removes the

offset problems of proportional mode. Such a mode
can be used in the systems with the frequent or large
load changes. But the process must have relatively
slow changes in the load, to prevent the oscillations.

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Proportional – Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode):
The series combination of proportional and derivative
control modes gives proportional plus derivative
control mode. The mathematical expression for the
PD composite control is,

m(t)= kp e(t)+ m(o)+kd d e(t)/dt

m(s)=kp E(s)+ m(o)+kd e(s) s
M(s)= kp E(s)+kp (Td)s E(s)+m(o)

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Characteristics of PD mode:
1.It improves the damping and reduces overshoot.
2.It reduces the rise time and makes response fast.
3.It makes the response stable very fast.
4.It cannot eliminate offset error.
5.It may make the noise dominant at high frequencies.
6.It is not very effective for lightly damped systems.
7.It may require a relatively large capacitor while the
circuit implementation.

Applications:
It can not eliminate offset error of proportional mode.
But it can be used to handle fast process load changes if
offset error is tolerable. It is used in many industrial
process control systems.
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Three Mode Controller (PID control Mode):
The composite controller including the combination of
the proportional, integral and derivative control
mode is called PID control mode and the controller
is called three mode controller. It is very much
complex to design but very powerful in action.
mathematically such a control mode can be
expressed as,

Where p(0) = Initial value of the output.

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 • The integral mode eliminates the offset error
of the proportional mode and the response is
also very fast due to derivative mode. The
sudden response is produced due to derivative
mode. Thus it can be used for any process
condition.

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• The proportional and PD control produces the offset
error. It requires significant time to attain the steady
state.
• The PI control eliminates the offset but at the
expense of the higher maximum overshoot, a long
period of oscillation and more settling time.
• The PD control produces the steady state very
quickly with least oscillations and smallest
maximum overshoot but offset is significant.
• With PID control, there is no offset and system
achieves the steady state with less settling time.
• Therefore PID is the ultimate process composite
controller.
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 • M(t)=kp e(t)+ m(0)+ki( integral e(t) dt)+

• M(s)=kp e(s)+ m(0)+ki e(s)/s+Kd e(s) s

• M(s)=kp e(s)+ m(0)+kp e(s)/Ti s+kp Td e(s) s
• M(s)= e(s)[ kp+kp / Ti s+ kp Td s]+ m(o)

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