Chapter 5

&
Chapter 6

Research Ethics
Why is research ethics important?
• Education might be the vessel that helps you cross the
vast ocean of knowledge, but where would you land
without an ethical compass?

• There are several reasons why it is important to adhere

to ethical norms in research.

 First, some of these norms promote the aims of research,

such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
e.g., prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and
avoid error.
2
Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different people
in different disciplines and institutions, many of these ethical
standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual
respect, and fairness.

For example, many ethical norms in research, such as

guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies,
data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer
review, are designed to protect intellectual property
interests while encouraging collaboration.
• Most researchers want to receive credit for their
contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or
disclosed prematurely.
3
- Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure
that researchers can be held accountable to the
public.
• For instance, US federal policies on research
misconduct, on conflicts of interest, on the
human study participant’s protections, and on
animal care and use are necessary in order to
make sure that researchers who are funded by
public money can be held accountable to the
public.
• (Ethical Clearance)

4
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to
build public support for research.
- People are more likely to fund research project
if they can trust the quality and integrity of
research.

• ‘’Ethical norms govern conduct in

medicine, law, engineering, and
business’’.

5
Exercise
• It is common knowledge that aiding a fugitive
from the law is illegal. If the fugitive happens to
be someone you know very well and s/he asks
you to pass a message to his/her family … will
you do it?
• Do you consider this act contrary to the law
forbidding ‘assistance to a fugitive’?
• And is it ethical?

6
 Chapter 6.
Reporting Research Findings
 Research Report Writing

 A) Research proposal writing (Revision)

1. Sequence of Content for Research Proposal

 Cover Page:- This page should bear proposal title, name of the
researcher(s) (full names), logo of the university/institution, name
of the university/institution, name of advisor(s), town/place of the
university/institution, month and year, in that order.

 Signature Page: - A signature page should be designed to contain

the signatures of the student and advisor.
 Sequence of content …

 Table of contents
 List of tables, figures, special symbols (if any) and
abbreviations (if any)
 Text of the proposal (starts from page 1 written in Arabic
numerical)
 Endnotes (Where applicable)
 References
 Appendixes
 2. Page Format

 The submission of the proposal must be on a

A4-size paper.
 It must be 1.5 spaced, written in 12 point sized
standard font, with a 3 cm left hand margins
and a 2.5 cm margin at the top, bottom and
right.
 Page format …

 Charts, tables, figures, appendices, references and all

other pages must also conform to the required technical
regulations and must not extend beyond the margins.

 Maps, figures, photographs, charts, tables and

appendices must be numbered, titled and sources must
be indicated underneath.
 3. Numbering

 Pages must be numbered consecutively, as must be

chapters, sections, etc.

 Try to avoid more than Four Levels of heading.

 Consistency in numbering must be maintained

throughout the work including Appendices.
 Numbering …

Preliminary pages must be numbered consecutively in

lowercase Roman numbers (example: i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, …).

The body of the proposal (Introduction onwards including

endnotes section, reference and appendix) should be
numbered in Arabic numbers (example: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …)
 B) Research Report Writing

1. Preliminary Section

 This section includes:

 1.1 Cover page: The cover page is the first

page of a report. It is preferably printed on

hard paper.
 Cover page …

 It includes:
 the title of the report;
 name of the researcher(s) (full names);
 logo of the university/institution;
 name of the department;
 name of the school, university/institution;
 Town/place of the university/institution, and
 month and year, in that order is formally submitted.

This is the only page of a report for which a page number is

not assigned.
 Acknowledgement

 Acknowledgement is a brief account of the report or

the origin and the utility of the study for which the
research work is presented.

 It also includes the acknowledgement to the persons

and sources that have been helpful to the investigator.

 The title ACKNOWLEDGEMENT should be typed in

capital letters.
 Table of Contents

 This section lists all the main headings and the essential
sub-headings with the appropriate page numbers against
each heading or sub-heading.

 The listing of the table of content is generally preceded by

some preliminaries like:
 preface or acknowledgement;
 list of tables;
 list of figures;
 acronyms/abbreviations;
 abstract and their respective pages in small Roman numbers,
 followed at the end by appendices/indexes.
 Table of contents …

 Contents should neither be too detailed nor should too

sketchy.

 The table of contents serves as an important purpose in

providing an outline of the contents of the report.

 The capitalized title ‘CONTENTS’ should be the central

heading of the page and the capitalized word ‘CHAPTER’
and ‘PAGE’ should lead to the numbers of chapters and
those of pages respectively on the left and right margins.
 List of Tables

 The table of contents is followed by the list of tables on a

separate page.

 This list of tables consists of the titles or captions of the tables

included “in the thesis along with the page number where
these can be located.

 The capitalized title ‘LIST OF TABLES’ should be the central

heading of the page and the capital words ‘TABLE’ and ‘PAGE’
should lead to the numbers and those of pages, respectively
at left and right margins.
 List of Tables …

 The statistical data are presented in vertical columns and

horizontal row, according to some classification of subject
matter.

 In the main body of the report any table should be

completed within a page.

 Numbering tables shall be sequentially arranged

throughout report.
 List of Figures and Illustrations

 A figure is a device that presents figurative data in pictorial

or visual form.

 The figure is used to a variety of graphs, charts, maps,

sketches, diagrams, pictures and drawings.

 It helps to understand the aspects of data clearly and easily.

 List of acronyms/abbreviations shall be included on a
separate page.
 Abstract

 It is a brief summary of approximately 300-400 words (more or

less).
 It should include rationale for the study, the research objectives,
methods employed, major findings & conclusions and
recommendations of the study.
 It should also be one page, one paragraph, single space and
Italic in format.
 It should include key words. (alphabetically)
 This format can be amended as per the requirement of the
specific field of study.
 MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT

MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT

 The text of the report is the most important section in the
organization of research report.

 The quality of worth of report is mainly examined in this

section.

 It is the original production of the researcher.

 The main body of the report serves the function of

demonstrating the competence of the researcher.
Main Body of the Report …

 If any sentence, paragraph, concept fails to serve the

single function within a given section or chapter, it is
irrelevant.

 The subject matter of any chapter should be relevant

to that point.

 Generally, the main body of the research report shall

be determined by the specific requirement of the field
of study.
 1. INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

 It consists of the background of the study,

statement of the problem, objectives, hypotheses
and research questions, significance of the study,
delimitations and limitations of the study.

 It is reported in past tense form of work completed.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

 This section is essential in most of the research studies.

 It presents the comprehensive development of the problem background.

 It indicates what has already been studied by others, which has a bearing
upon the present study.

 The review of literature stresses two aspects:

 first is the consideration of the subject-matter and it is likely
more important than the other.

 second is related to methodology and design.

 Literature Review …

 The review chapter is devoted to the development

of the problem statement or the objective of the
inquiry.

 The review is utilized to retain a direct relevancy to

the study in hand.

 It is the balancing chapter of the research report.

 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 This section indicates the line of approach of the study.

 The first aspect deals with the method, population and sample of
the study and the second part provides the tools and techniques
employed in the research.

 It also presents the procedure of the study.

 The whole plan of the study is discussed in detail under this chapter.
 Materials and Methods …

 Administration of tools and scoring procedures are

reported systematically.

 The data organization and presentation should be

given in this section.

 N.B: This part shall be modified so that it will be

compatible with the nature of the field of study.
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

 In this section results and analyses are reported so as to
draw the inferences of the study.

 The analyses of data are presented in tabular form and in

figures or pictorial presentation.

 The results are interpreted in detail.

 This chapter provides the original work or contribution by

the researcher.
 Results and Discussions …

 In the discussions, the researchers interpret their results.

 The discussion is used to highlight the importance of the

study and describe the limitations of the study and
implications for future research.

 If researchers choose to write the results and discussions

as one chapter, they should follow the description of
major findings with appropriate interpretation and
discussion.
 4.1. Conclusions and Recommendations
• Conclusions and Recommendations

• This section requires the creative and reflective aspect of

the researcher.

• The results are discussed to make them more meaningful

comparison of the results with the evidence .

• It should be woven into the text whenever such a

discussion can serve to clarify the points being reported.
 Conclusions and Recommendations Con..,

• This is the final chapter of a report, thus findings

and conclusions of the study are summarized
and recommendations for further studies are
also given.

• The main thrust in the section is the answer of

the question or solution of the problem.

• The validity of the findings should be mentioned.

5. REFERENCES

References
 This is the third section of a research report. It consists of generally the
references and appendices.

 The references and appendices are written on a separate page - in the

center with capital letters.

References are a list of the printed sources utilized in the research work.

If the sources in the text are numbered to refer to

the source in the references, the entries must be numerically listed in the
order of appearance in the text.
References …

 The various format manuals include information on form for the

references.

 If the list of sources is too large the references should be

categorized in the following sections:
 Books, monographs, documents and reports, periodicals and
journals, essay and articles, unpublished thesis and material and
newspapers.

 In writing references the surname is written first than initials, year

of publication, title of the book, publishers name, place and total
number of pages.
References …

 The referencing and citation style can be modified based on

the requirement of the field of study.

 The selected format should be consistently used throughout

the thesis.

 The following are examples of writing references in APA style.

 N.B: This part shall be modified so that it will be compatible

with the nature of the field of study.
References …

i. Example for single author:

 Best, J. W. (2011) Research in Education, 3rd ed., New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs, 403 pp.

ii. Kebede Yemane. (2008) Cigarette smoking and khat

chewing among university instructors in Ethiopia. East African
Medical Journal 16 (1): 9-17.

iii. Example for two authors:

 McGrath, J.H. and D. Gene Watts (1999) Research Methods and
Designs for Education’ Pennsylvania: International Text-Book
Company, 222 pp.
References …

iv. Example for three or more authors:

 Wästfelt, A., Tsegaye Tegenu, Nielsen, M.N. and Malmberg, B. 2011.
Qualitative satellite image analysis: Mapping spatial distribution of
farming types in Ethiopia. Applied Geography 32 (2): 465-476.

v.Chapter in Edited Book

Abu-Elteen, K.H. and Hamad, M. 2007. Determination of the

virulence factors of Candida albicans and related yeast species. pp.
69-91 In: K. Kavanagh (ed.),
Medical Mycology: Cellular and Molecular Techniques. Chichester,
West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
• Atelay Alem and Dereje Kebede. 2005. Gender and health in
Ethiopia. pp. 196-216 In: Yemane Berhane, Damen Haile Mariam
and Kloos, H. (eds.), Epidemiology and Ecology of Health and
Disease in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Shama Books.

• Vi. Paper in Conference Proceedings

•
• Tessema Megenasa. 2008. Keynote Address. pp. 11- 19 In:
Abraham Tadesse (ed.), Proceedings of the 14th
• Annual Conference of the Chemical engineering Society of
Ethiopia, 19-22 December 2006. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
• Vi. Theses and Dissertations
• Eyob Shenkut. 2010. Mathematics Anxiety of 9th and 10th Grade
students: The Case of Three Selected Secondary Schools in Dire
Dawa. M.Ed. Thesis, Haramaya ,University, Haramaya, Ethiopia.

• Vii. Web Document with No Author’s Name or Date of

Publication
•
• Anonymous (n.d.) Census data revisited, Harvard Psychology of
Population website, (http://harvard.edu/data/index.php.)
Accessed on March 9, 2009.
• Viii. Electronic Book
•
• Biersteker, P.J., Spiro, P.J., Sprira, M. and
Raffo, V. 2007. International Law and
• International Relations.
• (http://www.4shared.com/gate/OKYHLz/Inter
ational_law_and_internat.html)
• Accessed on June 15, 2011.
References …

ix. Example for author not given:

 Author’s Guide (1955) Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, 121 pp.

xi. Example for unpublished thesis:

 Sharma, R.A. (1992). Some Predictors of Teacher Effectiveness,
Unpublished” Ph.D. Thesis Submitted to Meerut University, 320 pp.

xii. Article in an Encyclopedia and Hand Book.

 Barr, A.S. (1974), Criteria of Teacher-Effectiveness Ebel’s
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, 742 p.
References …

xiii. Example for Journals and Periodicals:

 Bar, A.S. (1990), ‘The Measurement and Prediction of
Teaching Efficiency,’ Review of Educational Research,
10(4): pp. 185-190.

xiv. A chapter written by an author other than the

editor:
 MacCoby E.E. (1994), ‘The Interview: A Tool of Social
Science’,’ Chapter 12, in the Hand Book of Social
Psychology, Addison, Wesley Cambridge Mass.
APPENDICES …

Even the material of minor importance e.g. forms, letters, reminders,

interview sheets, blank questionnaires, charts, tables, lengthy questions,
report of cases (if follow-up or case studies have been conducted).

The tools and other material should be placed first and tables at the end
and page numbers should be assigned in Roman Numbers (i, ii, xxi).

The appendix serves the function of providing greater clarity and

authenticity for the readers or consumers of the thesis.

The items of the appendix are very essential for a good research report.
Footnotes

 Footnotes serve a number of purposes.

 The authenticity and accuracy of material quoted. They enable the
researcher:
 to substantiate his/her presentation by quotations or citations of
other authorities,

 to give credit to sources of material that he/she has reported and to

provide the reader with specific sources that he/she may use to verify
Footnotes …

 The citation or quoted statements are written in

single-spaced whereas the text is written double-
spaced.

 The footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page

and are separated from the text by a 3cm horizontal
line drawn from the left margin.
 Footnotes are numbered consecutively within a
chapter.
Standard Format for Reporting

• The research report should be written in a style that

it is clear and concise.

• Therefore, the following considerations should be

kept in view in writing a research report (see Table
below).
Language English and other local languages
Paper specification:
 Color White
 Size 21 cm xn29.7 cm (A4)
 Weight > 80 gm
Typing:
 Left margin 3 cm
 Right margin 2.5 cm
 Top margin 2.5 cm
 Bottom margin 2.5cm
 Spacing 1.5
 Side Front Single
 Standard formatting …
Typing …
 Font size 12
 Font type Times New Roman
 Font style Regular
 Font color Black
 Breaking a word on 2 lines Not allowed
 Corrections with fluid Not allowed
 Overwriting Not allowed
 Crossing out words Not allowed
 Typing machine Computer
 Printing quality Laser or better quality
 Copies High quality photocopy
Headings …

 The following is the example:

 Major Heading: A chapter of the report is divided into
major chairs. The major heading is written in capital
letters, bold face and at the center of the page.
 Sub-heading: A major heading is sometimes divided
into sub headings which are known as minor
headings. It starts with left margin of a page in lower-
upper letters.
 Paragraph Heading: If the minor heading is further
divided, the paragraph is used. It must be indented
five spaces and underlined. A full stop and dash is
marked after such a heading. The written matter
starts on the same line.
6. Pagination

 Assigning page numbers of the report is very essential.

 The title page or initial page of any section does not have a page
number typed on it, but a number is allotted to it in the series of pages.

 Page numbers are typed in the bottom right hand corner, one inch
below the top edge of the page.

 The small or lower Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv) are assigned for the
pages of preliminary section.

 The serial Arabic numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 ….. so on are assigned for the pages
of textual body or main body of the report i.e. Chapter 1 to last
references and annex or appendix.
7. Proof Reading

 A research report should not have errors.

 It requires that final typed copies must be checked

carefully.

 All types of errors should be deleted before

submission.
 • The End

• Thank You Very Much for

Your Civilized Attention