Forensic Biometrics: Fingerprints and Facial Recognition: Fourth Edition

Forensic Science
From the Crime Scene to the Crime Lab

Fourth Edition
Chapter 8
Forensic
Biometrics:
Fingerprints and
Facial Recognition
Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Biometrics (1 of 4)
• What is biometrics?
 Biometrics is a cutting-edge form of access-control that
accurately and efficiently identifies humans. This system
uses an individual’s biological and behavioral traits to
grant access to an establishment or a computer network.
Biometrics (2 of 4)
• Two types
 Physiological
 Behavioral
FIGURE 8-2 Fingerprint ridge characteristics.

Sirchie Finger Print Laboratories
Biometrics (3 of 4)
• Physiological
 This form of biometrics focuses on identifying humans
through their unique physiological traits. Physiological
biometrics includes fingerprints, hand, iris, retina and
facial scans.
Biometrics (4 of 4)
• Behavioral
 This form of biometrics focuses on identifying humans
through unique behavioral or mental patterns they
exhibit. Behavioral biometrics includes handwriting,
voice, keystroke and gait recognition.
Facial Recognition
• Facial scans are the least accurate form of biometrics
currently available in the physiological category.
• The human face is just as unique as the eye or hand, but
the technology available today has trouble distinguishing
subtle traits from still images.
• Even less accurate when using biometrics for identification
purposes, such as picking a face out of a crowd and
matching it to a database of wanted persons.
Fingerprint History (1 of 5)
• The first systematic attempt at personal identification was
devised by a French police expert, Alphonse Bertillion.
• The Bertillion system relied on a detailed description of the
subject, combined with full-length and profile photographs
and a system of precise body measurements called
anthropometry.
• In 1892 Francis Galton published his classic textbook
Finger Prints.
• At Galton's insistence, the British government adopted
fingerprinting as a supplement to the Bertillion system.
• The next step was the creation of classification systems
capable of filing many thousands of prints in a logical and
searchable sequence.
• Dr. Juan Vucetich devised a classification system still used
in most Spanish-speaking countries, while Sir Edward
Henry devised another classification system used in most
English-speaking countries.
• In 1903, when the Bertillion system could not distinguish
between two men (one Will West and the other William
West), it was fingerprinting that clearly distinguished them.
• After the Will West incident, the use of fingerprinting by the
New York City Civil Service Commission in 1901, and the
training of American police by Scotland Yard
representatives at the 1904 World's Fair, fingerprinting
began to be used in earnest in all major U.S. cities.
Fingerprint Principles (1 of 3)
• Fingerprints are a reproduction of friction skin ridges found
on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs.
• The basic principles underlying the use of fingerprints in
criminal investigations are that:
1. A fingerprint is an individual characteristic because no
two fingers have yet been found to possess identical
ridge characteristics.
• The basic principles underlying the use of fingerprints in
criminal investigations are that:
2. A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an
individual's lifetime.
3. A fingerprints have general ridge patterns that permit
them to be systematically classified.
Principle One (1 of 6)
• Mathematically, the probability for the existence of two
identical fingerprint patterns in the world's population is
extremely small.
 Galton calculated the existence of 64 billion different
fingerprints.
extremely small.
 Besides theoretical calculations, of the millions upon
millions of individuals who have had their prints
classified, no two fingerprints have been found to be
identical.
extremely small.
 The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its
general shape or pattern, but by the careful study of its
ridge characteristics, known as minutiae.
• Some common fingerprint ridge characteristics are
bifurcations, ridge endings, ridge dots, and enclosures.
 There are as many as 150 minutiae on the average
finger.
 Currently in the United States, there is no predetermined
minimum number of friction ridge characters which must
be present in two impressions in order to establish
positive identification.
 In a judicial proceeding, an expert must demonstrate a
point-by-point comparison in order to prove the identity
of an individual.
FIGURE 8-2 Fingerprint ridge characteristics.
Sirchie Finger Print Laboratories
FIGURE 8-3 A fingerprint exhibit illustrating the matching ridge
characteristics between the crime-scene print and an inked impression of
one of the suspect’s fingers. Richard Saferstein, Ph.D.
Principle Two (1 of 3)
• The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin, while the
dermis is the inner layer of the skin.
• The dermal papillae is the layer of cells between the
epidermis and dermis, that is responsible for determining
the form and pattern of the ridges on the surface of the
skin.
• Once the dermal papillae develop in the human fetus, the
ridge patterns will remain unchanged throughout life
except to enlarge during growth.
• Each skin ridge is populated with pores leading to sweat
glands, from which perspiration is deposited on the skin.
• Once the finger touches a surface, perspiration, along with
oils that may have been picked up by touching the hairy
portions of the body, is transferred onto that surface,
leaving the finger's ridge pattern (a fingerprint).
 Prints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye
and are commonly referred to a latent fingerprints.
FIGURE 8-4 Cross-section of human skin.
Principle Three
• All fingerprints are divided into three classes on the basis
of their general pattern: loops, arches, and whorls
(L.A.W.).
• 60–65% of the population have loops, 30–35% have
whorls, and about 5% have arches.
Loops
• A loop must have one or more ridges entering from one
side of the print, recurving, and exiting from the same side.
 If the loop opens toward the little finger, it is called an
ulnar loop.
 If the loop opens toward the thumb, it is called a radial
loop.
Whorls (1 of 3)
• Whorls are divided into four groups.
1. Plain
2. Central pocket loop
3. Double loop
4. Accidental
Whorls (2 of 3)
• A plain whorl and a central pocket loop have at least one
ridge that makes a complete circuit.
Whorls (3 of 3)
• The double loop is made up of two loops combined into
one fingerprint.
• An accidental either contains two or more patterns, or is a
pattern not covered by the other categories.
 Hence, an accidental may consist of a combination loop
and plain whorl or loop and tented arch.
FIGURE 8-7a Whorl types. (a) Plain whorl. One or more ridges
form a complete circlelike pattern around the center. These often
look like a bull’s eye. Anthony Smith and Erika DiPalma
FIGURE 8-7b Whorl types. (b) Central pocket loop. Ridges form a
loop pattern which go around the circlelike pattern in the center. These
often look like a peacock eye. Anthony Smith and Erika DiPalma
FIGURE 8-7c Whorl types. (c) Double loop whorl. Two separate loops
are present in one impression. These often look like the symbol of the yin
and the yang. Anthony Smith and Erika DiPalma
FIGURE 8-7d Whorl types (d) Accidental whorl. A mixture of two different
types of patterns. These often look like an accident since several patterns are
occupying the same space. Anthony Smith and Erika DiPalma
Arches (1 of 2)
• Arches, the least common of the three general patterns,
are divided into two distinct groups.
– Plain arches
– Tented arches
• The plain arch is formed by ridges entering from one side
of the print, rising and falling, and exiting on the opposite
side (like a wave).
Arches (2 of 2)
• The tented arch is similar to the plain arch except that
instead of rising smoothly at the center, there is a sharp
upthrust or spike, or the ridges meet at an angle that is
less than 90 degrees.
FIGURE 8-8a Arch patterns. (a) Plain arch. Ridges enter the
impression rise to the center and exit the opposite side of the impression.
These often resemble hills. Anthony Smith and Erika DiPalma
FIGURE 8-8b Arch patterns. (b) Tented arch. Ridges enter the impression,
spike towards the center, and exit the opposite side of the impression. These
often resemble a tent. Anthony Smith and Erika DiPalma
ACE-V (1 of 3)
• A four-step process to identify and individualize a finger
print
– Analysis
– Comparison
▪ Compare the questioned print at (3) levels
ACE-V (2 of 3)
• A four-step process to identify and individualize a finger
print
– Identify
– Verification
▪ Examiner's conclusion is confirmed by a second
examiner.
ACE-V (3 of 3)
• Level 1 encompasses the general ridge flow and pattern
configuration.
• Level 2 includes locating and comparing ridge
characteristics or minutiae.
• Level 3 includes the examination and location of ridge
pores, breaks, creases, scars, and other permanent
minutiae.
Primary Classification (1 of 6)
• Fingerprint classification systems are based on knowledge
of fingerprint pattern classes.
• First, fingers are paired up, placing one finger in the
numerator of a fraction and the other in the denominator.
• The presence or absence of the whorl pattern is the basis
for the determination of the primary classification.
• If a whorl pattern is found on any finger of the first pair, it is
assigned a value of 16; on the second pair, an 8; on the
third pair, a 4; on the second pair, a 2; and on the last pair,
a 1.
• Any finger having a loop or arch is assigned a 0.
• After values for all 10 fingers are obtained, they are
totaled, and a 1 is added to both the numerator and
denominator.
• The fraction thus obtained is the primary classification.
• Approximately 25% of the population falls into the 1/1
category; that is, all their fingers have either loops or
arches.
• A fingerprint classification system cannot in itself
unequivocally identify an individual.
• It will merely provide the fingerprint examiner with a
number of candidates, all of whom have an
indistinguishable set of prints in the system's file.
AFIS (1 of 4)
• The heart of AFIS technology is the ability of a computer to
scan and digitally encode fingerprints so that they can be
subject to high-speed computer processing.
AFIS (2 of 4)
• AFIS aids in classifying and retrieving fingerprints by
converting the image of a fingerprint into digital minutiae
that contain data showing ridges at their points of
termination (ridge endings) and their branching into two
ridges (bifurcations).
AFIS (3 of 4)
• When the search is complete (a computer can make
thousands of comparisons per second), the computer
produces a list of file prints that must be examined by a
trained fingerprint expert.
AFIS (4 of 4)
• AFIS systems come in all sizes allowing for the creation of
local systems at the country and city levels.
• Software incompatibilities often mean that state and local
AFIS systems cannot communicate with each other and
share information.
Next Generation Identification (1 of 2)
• The FBI has begun integrating biometric technology into
their new identification system. As of September 2014, the
FBI dropped the use of their Integrated Automated
Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) for a brand new
state-of-the-art identification system.
Next Generation Identification (2 of 2)
• NGI’s capabilities
 RapBack
 Interstate Photo System (IPS)
• Scars, marks, tattoos
 Facial Recognition Services (FACE Services)
 Advanced Fingerprint Identification Technology (AFIT)
 Repository for Individuals of Special Concern (RISC)
 Cold Case/Unknown Deceased
 Iris Pilot (IP)
 Latent and Palm Prints
Latent Prints
• Once the finger touches a surface, body perspiration
and/or oils present on the finger ridges are transferred to
that surface, leaving an impression.
• Prints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye and
are commonly referred to as latent or invisible fingerprints.
Visible Prints (1 of 2)
• Visible prints are made when fingers touch a surface after
the ridges have been in contact with a colored material
such as blood, paint, grease, or ink.
• Plastic prints are ridge impressions left on a soft material,
such as putty, wax, soap, or dust.
Visible Prints (2 of 2)
• Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime scene
normally presents little problem to the investigator,
because these prints are usually distinct and visible to the
eye.
Detecting Prints on Non-Porous Surfaces (1 of 7)
• Latent prints deposited on hard and nonabsorbent
surfaces (e.g., glass, mirror, tile, and painted wood) are
preferably developed by the application of a powder;
whereas prints on porous surfaces (e.g., papers,
cardboard, and cloth) generally require treatment with a
chemical.
• Powders, available in a variety of colors, can be applied
with a brush or magnetic wand, and adhere to perspiration
and/or body oils of the print. Most common are black
powders (black carbon) and gray powders (aluminum
dust).
• Super Glue® is approximately 98 to 99 percent
cyanoacrylate ester, a chemical that actually interacts with
and visualizes a latent fingerprint.
• Super Glue® fuming develops latent prints on nonporous
surfaces, such as metals, electrical tape, leather, and
plastic bags.
 Development occurs when fumes from the glue adhere
to the print, usually producing a white latent print.
• Super Glue® fuming can be accomplished by using either a
fuming chamber (for up to six hours) or a handheld wand
that heats a small cartridge containing cyanoacrylate.
• Fingerprints are treated with chemicals that would induce
fluorescence when exposed to lasers or high-intensity light
sources ("alternate light sources") such as quartz halogen,
xenon arc, or indium arc light sources.
• Dye combinations known as RAM, RAY, and MRM 10,
when used in conjunction with Super Glue fuming, have
been effective in visualizing latent fingerprints by
fluorescence.
Detecting Prints on Porous Surfaces (1 of 5)
• Examiners use various chemical methods to visualize
latent prints on porous surfaces, such as iodine fuming,
ninhydrin, and Physical Developer.
• Iodine fuming involves heating iodine crystals that cause
vapors which combine with latent prints to make them
visible.
 Iodine prints are not permanent and will fade, making it
necessary to photograph the prints immediately.
• Ninhydrin reacts chemically with trace amounts of amino
acids present in latent prints to produce a purple-blue
color.
 It's the chemical method of choice.
• Physical Developer is a silver-nitrate-based reagent used
to develop prints when other chemical methods are
ineffective.
• It is also useful for developing prints on porous objects that
may have been wet at one time.
• If one wants to use all of the three chemical methods on
the same surface, it is necessary to first fume with iodine,
then treat with ninhydrin, and then apply physical
developer.
Preserving Prints (1 of 2)
• If the object is small enough to be transported without
destroying the print, it should be preserved in its entirety.
• A photograph must be taken before any attempts at
preservation are made.
Preserving Prints (2 of 2)
• Prints on large immovable objects that have been
developed with a powder can best be preserved by "lifting"
with a broad adhesive tape.
• Then the tape is placed on a properly labeled card that
provides a good background contrast with the powder.
Digital Imaging (1 of 2)
• Digital imaging is the process by which a picture is
converted into a digital computer file.
• With the help of digital imaging software, fingerprints,
which are often not in perfect condition, can now be
enhanced for the most accurate and comprehensive
analysis.
Digital Imaging (2 of 2)
• An important and useful tool, especially for fingerprint
identification, is the "compare" function that places two
images side by side and allows the examiner to chart the
common features on both images simultaneously.
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Forensic Science

From the Crime Scene to the Crime Lab

FIGURE 8-2 Fingerprint ridge characteristics.

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