Unit – III Data collection

Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of

primary data collection – Survey Vs Observation –
Experiments – Construction of questionnaire and instrument
– Validation of questionnaire – Sampling plan – Sample size –
determinants optimal sample size – sampling techniques –
Probability Vs Non–probability sampling methods
 Meaning of Data Mining
• Shifting through very large amounts of data
for useful information.
• A process used by companies to turn raw data
into useful information.
 Meaning of Data collection
• The search for answers to research questions is called collection
of data. Data are facts, and other relevant materials, past and
present, serving as bases for study and analyses.
• Some example of data are:
• 1. The types of news read by newspaper readers
( readership survey)
• 2. The opinions of people on voting in a general election
(opinion poll)
• 3. the types of loans secured by borrowers ( for a credit survey)
 Types or Sources of Data

• Primary Data— collected for the first time

• Secondary Data—those which have already been collected
and analyzed by someone else.
 Primary Data
• Primary data are original sources from which the researcher
directly collects data that have not been previously collected.
• e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand
awareness, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer
behavior from a sample of consumers by interviewing them.
• Primary data are first-hand information collected through
various methods such as observation , interviewing , mailing
etc…
 Secondary Data or Sources
• These are sources containing data which have been collected
and compiled for another purpose . The secondary data
consists of readily available and already compiled statistical
statements and reports whose data may be used by
researcher for their studies
• E.g., census reports, annual reports, financial statements of
companies and statistical statements, Books/ Magazines ,
Internet, Newspapers etc…
 Self study topic
Primary data VS secondary data
Primary Data Secondary Data
1. Meaning : primary data is • 1. Secondary data are those
the one, which is collected by data which have been already
the investigator himself for collected and analyzed by
the purpose of a specific some earlier agency for its
inquiry or study. own use; and later the same
• 2. cost : the cost of obtaining data are used by different
primary data is typically agency.
more. • 2. secondary data is typically
available for free or for the
subscription fee to the
database magazine or journal.
3. Sources : a primary data source 3. A secondary data source is a
is a publication in which the
data are published by the same
authority which gathered and
analyzed them.
4. Methods : It is normally
collected for primary data is
more reliable than those
collected form secondary data.
5. Reliability :
The information collected
for primary data is more
reliable than those collected
form the secondary data.
publication, reporting the
data which have been
gathered by other authorities
and for which others are
responsible.
4. The method or way of
collecting secondary data
includes books, journals ,
census data biographies,
articles and databases.
5. Whereas secondary data are
less reliable because these
information are not collected
for that particular purpose.
• 6. Scientific method :
Primary data follows the
scientific method. A
hypothesis is formed, data is
collected from an experiment
based on the hypothesis and
the hypothesis is proven
correct or not
7. precaution: No extra
precautions are required in
primary data
8. Form of data: primary data
are in the shape of raw
material.
• 6. secondary data does not
start with a hypothesis as the
data is already collected.
Patterns and insights are
found within the secondary
data and then the
observation on that data is
made.
• 7. secondary data need more
care and attention.
8. Secondary data need more
care and attention.
9. Accuracy :
Primary research is tailored
specifically for the project
and tends to be more
accurate. Primary data is
customized .
10. Example:
One’s own questionnaire.
• 10. Data from a magazine,
• 9.while secondary data can
provide plenty of
information, it is less
accurate because the data
collected was not collected
specifically for the
questions. Secondary data
is not customized.
journal etc….
 Methods of Primary Data Collection
I. Observation method
II. Survey method
III. Experimental method
 I. Observation method
• It is the gathering of primary data by investigator’s own direct
observation of relevant people, actions and situations without
asking from the respondent.
• E.g., A food service operator sends researchers into competing
restaurants to learn menu items prices, check portion sizes and
consistency and observe point-of purchase merchandising.
• e.g. Observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions
the same menu items indicates that food is not satisfactory
 Types of Observation:

• 1. Structured
• 2. Unstructured
• 3. direct Observation
• 4. indirect observation
• 5. Disguised observation
1. Structured observation :
structured observation is used when the research problem has
been formulated precisely and the researcher is told to
observe the area of study. The researchers are asked to record
their observations.

2. Un structured observation:
the unstructured observation implies that the
researchers are free to observe whatever they feel relevant
and reasonable. .
• 3. Direct observation:
In direct observation, the behavior of a person is observed.

4. In direct observation:
Indirect observation implies that same record of past behavior
is observed, the behavior is not observed , and rather its effects
are observed. Here the observer engaged in indirect
observation.

5. Disguised observation :
Here, the subject or informants do not know that they are
being observed. This is preferred as it is feared that people may
behave differently when they know that somebody is observing
them .
 II. Survey method
• This method refers to collecting standardized information
through structured questionnaires to generate quantitative
data. 
• Surveys may be mailed (surface and electronic), completed on-
site or administered through interviews, conducted either
face-to-face,  by telephone or  electronically.
• Sample surveys use probability sampling which allows to
generalize findings to a larger population, while informal
surveys do not.
 Survey method
• Survey can be performed by sending a questionnaire and
quantifying the response when questionnaires are returned.
This approach is most suited for gathering descriptive
information.
• In a survey, usually general questions are asked to know what
customers or subjects do and think. But if one wants to know
‘why they feel that way’, one has to conduct an in-depth
research.
• In survey, answers may depend on the mood of the
respondent. As such, the survey shows how one feels at one
particular time
 Survey methods
A. Interview method
B. Questionnaire method
C. Schedule method
 A. Interview method

• An interview is a conversation between two or more people

where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or
statements from the interviewee.
• A meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation.
 Types of Interview

1. Personal interview
2. Telephone interview
3. Mail interview
4. Self-administered interview
5. Panel interview
 1. Personal interview:
• In this method information is collected by talking with and
listening to people. Two persons are sitting together and
collect information from one person to another person.

Example questions
• Tell me about yourself?
• What motivates you?
 2. Telephone interview
• Telephone Interviewing stands out as the best method for
gathering quickly needed information. Responses are
collected from the respondents by the researcher on
telephone.
• In telephone interview method we can save our time .
Conversation happens between two persons only on phone .

• Example questions:
• What is your experience?
• Why are you leaving your job? -
 3. Mail interview
• Questionnaires are send to the respondents, they fill it up and
send it back.
• The mail questionnaire is accompanied with a covering letter
instructing the respondent how to complete the questionnaire
at their own leisure and mail the replies to the researcher.
• This kind of interview requires that the questionnaire has to
be even more carefully compiled, structure and pre-tested
than the personal interview questionnaire.
Example for Email interview
 4. Self- administered interview
• The self-administered questionnaire is a questionnaire that a
respondent completes on his/her own, either on paper or via
computer.
• The self-administered and mail survey methods have one thing in
common. They differ from the other survey methods discussed in
that no interviewer-human or computer-is involved.
• A questionnaire is a type of survey method that utilizes a
standardized set or list of questions given to individuals or groups,
the results of which can be consistently compared and contrasted.
• Care must be taken in the design of the questionnaires to ensure
clarity. Questions may be designed to measure dichotomous
responses (for example, yes /no or true/false questions),or Likert
scale .
• for example : Application form, license form etc….
 5. Panel interview

Panel interview takes place when an applicant for

employment is interviewed by a panel (group) of
interviewers. In some cases, the candidate will meet
separately with the panel. In other cases, there will be panel
of interviewers and multiple candidates all in the same room.
 B. Questionnaire method
• A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers,
devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study.
• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series
of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions usually
printed or typed in a definite order and form.
• Questionnaire is the main instrument in survey research .
• A questionnaire is a list of questions sent to number of persons
for them to answer. It secures standardized results that can be
tabulated and treated statistically.
 Types of questionnaire method

1. Open ended questions

2. Closed ended questions
3. Contingency questions
1.open ended question
Unstructured question in which (unlike in a multiple choice question) possible
answers are not suggested, and the respondent answers it in his or her own
words. Such questions usually begin with a how, what, when, where, and why
Open ended questions are not followed by any type answers of specific type .
The respondent is free to answer it way he wants and his answer is fully
recorded.
while open-ended questions are those which require more thought and more
than a simple one-word answer.
For example: which party do you think will get the majority.
The respondent to can express his or her thoughts freely to answer this
question.
In case there is any vague answers why he thinks so
2. Close ended-questions
A close ended question is one where a set of answers are
given at the end of each question. The respondents are asked
to choose the answer which comes nearest to their views.
• closed ended questions may take sometime to be framed but
they can be quickly answered by the respondents.
• For example: Close-ended questions are those which can be
answered by a simple "yes" or "no,“
Question: “Children should be given pocket-money to spend”
1. Strongly agree
2. Agree
3. Disagree
4. Strongly disagree
5. undecided
3. Contingency questions

• A Contingency (possibility) question is a special case of a

closed ended question which applies to only a sub group of
respondents.
• For example
• some questions are relevant to some respondents only.
Thus two questions are asked to measure the media
impact.
1. Do you regularly see the news in the television
Yes/no
2. If yes what change would you like to suggest for
improvement.
The first question is called filter question i.e. only those
who answer to this question can answer the second
 C. Schedule method
• Schedule like the questionnaire is an important survey tool to
collect primary data.
• Schedule is the name usually applied to a set of questions
which are asked and filled by an interviewer , in a face to face
situation with another.
• The major difference is that questionnaire is filled up by the
respondent himself but in the schedule method questionnaire
is filled up by the interviewer or investigator on the basis of
discussion with the respondent.
• Example for schedule method:
please provide your family background.

Serial Name of the Age Relationship Education job Marital

No Member status
 III. Experiment method
• Experiment is a research process used to study the causal
relationships between variables. It aims at studying the effect
of an independent variable on a dependent variable, by
keeping the other independent variable constant through
some type of control.
• For example : cake preparation through experimental method.
 Survey VS Observation Method
Survey Method Observation Method
1. Objective:
1. Observation method is
This method of collecting decidedly superior to survey
data is useful when research, experimentation,
population size is very large. or document study for
Mostly used in social research collecting data in behavior
2. Response : Research.
Response in survey method is 2. Response in observation is
based on verbal answers to neither as restrictive nor as
limited set of questions. It can artificial as either the survey
clearly cause bias in the data or the experiment.
collected that researchers are
attempting to study.
3. Difficulties of
quantification:
Measurement in survey
studies generally takes the
form of the observer’s
quantitative measure .
Survey researches tend to
be more quantitative types
who are seeking a more
rational sort of data.
4. Sample size:
• 4. observational studies
survey studies
conducted for large sample
size. It is very useful when
sample size is very large.
• Measurement in
observational studies
generally takes the form of
the observers unquantified
perceptions. Observational
researchers tend to be non-
quantitative types who are
seeking a more emotional
and humanistic sort of data
and a more humanistic
relationship with subjects.
tend to use a smaller
sample than survey studies,
but a larger sample than
experiments.
 Difference between questionnaire and
schedule
Schedules
Questionnaire
1. Mode : • 1. the schedule is generally
The questionnaire is filled out by the researcher
generally sent through mail worker or the enumerator,
to informants to be answered who can interpret questions
as specified in a covering when necessary.
letter, but otherwise without
further assistance from the
sender.
2. Identification of respondents : 2. In case of schedule the
In case of questionnaire , it is identity of respondent is
not always clear as to who known.
replies.
3. Economy: To collect data
through questionnaire is
relatively cheap and
economical since we have to
spend money only in preparing
the questionnaire and in
mailing the same to
respondents. Here no field
staffs are required.
4. Chances of Non-Response
Non-response is usually high in
case of questionnaire as many
people do not respond and
many return the questionnaire
with answering all questions.
Bias due to non-response often
remains inderminate.
To collect data through
schedules is relatively more
expensive since considerable
amount t of money has to be
spent in appointing
enumerators and in imparting
training to them. Money is
also spent in preparing
schedules.
4. non- response is generally
very low in case of schedules
because these are filled by
enumerators who are able to
get answers to all questions.
But there remains the danger
of interviewer bias and
cheating.
5. Time consumption: • 5. in case of schedules the
the questionnaire method is information is collected well
likely to be very slow since in time as they are filled in
many respondents do not by enumerators.
return the questionnaire in
time despite several
reminders.
6. Personal contact:
6. In case of schedules direct
personal contact is personal contact is
generally not possible in established with
case of the questionnaire respondents .
method as questionnaires
are sent to respondents by
post who also in turn
returns the same by post.
 Secondary data collection methods

• Secondary data analysis can be literally defined as “second-

hand” analysis. It is the analysis of data or information that
was either gathered by someone else (e.g., researchers,
institutions, other NGOs, etc.) or for some other purpose than
the one currently being considered, or often a combination of
the two
 Secondary Data Sources
 
1. Government Documents
2. Official Statistics
3. Technical Reports
4. Scholarly Journals
5. Literature Review Articles
6. Trade Journals
7. Reference Books
8. Research Institutions
9. Universities
10.Libraries, Library Search Engines
11.Computerized Databases
• 1. Government documents
Different government departments have different data, which
are not available in libraries but these are very useful for
understanding various aspects of the economy.
The researchers can utilize them for the purposes of their
research. Information and data pertaining to agriculture,
industry, trade, transport, banking and finance can be obtained
from the respective ministries of the government of India.
2. Official Statistics:
Official statistics are statistics collected by governments and
their various agencies, bureaus, and departments.
These statistics can be useful to researchers because they are
an easily obtainable and comprehensive source of information
that usually covers long periods of time.
3. Technical Reports:
• Technical reports are accounts of work done on research
projects. They are written to provide research results to
colleagues, research institutions, governments, and other
interested researchers. A report may come from completed
research or on-going research projects.
• For example: some general topics like usage of water, plastics
etc…..
4. Scholarly Journals:
• Scholarly (academic) journals generally contain reports of
original research or experimentation written by experts in
specific fields.
• Articles in scholarly journals usually undergo a peer review
where other experts in the same field review the content of
the article for accuracy, originality, and relevance.
• For example: Academic articles
5. Literature Review Articles:
• Literature review articles assemble and review original
research dealing with a specific topic. Reviews are usually
written by experts in the field and may be the first written
overview of a topic area. Review articles discuss and list all
the relevant publications from which the information is
derived.
for example : In Harvard business school Michael.E.porter
written many articles in strategies.
6. Trade Journals:
• Trade journals contain articles that discuss practical
information concerning various fields. These journals provide
people in these fields with information pertaining to that field
or trade.
• For example: business world, business today, etc….
8. Reference Books:
• Reference books provide secondary source material. In many
cases, specific facts or a summary of a topic is all that is
included.
• Handbooks, manuals, encyclopedias, and dictionaries are
considered reference books etc…
9. Universities
It would be beneficial to establish contact with experts at
local university departments that are dedicated to research on
the topic areas that you are interested in (e.g., Departments of
Agricultural Sciences, Public Health, Economics, Anthropology,
Sociology).
These experts can be important sources of information on on-
going research projects as well as for guiding you toward other
sources of topic area information or individuals that can be
contacted.
 10.Libraries and library search engines
• Library provides many sources where suitable data may be
obtained. Public libraries , colleges and university libraries
contain a large amount of business information, which provides
sources of other data. Management books, theses,
management journals and other publications can be consulted
in these libraries.
• Nowadays library search engines are also available to collect
information through computer.
11. Computerized data bases
• Surfing the web –Search Engines
• Newsgroups on the Internet
– Internet sites devoted to a specific topic where people can
read and post messages.

• . Databases
– A number of companies offer database packages on DVD
for personal computers or by subscription over the internet
• Geographic Information Systems
– Computer-based systems that use secondary and/or
primary data to generate maps that visually display
answers to research questions.
 Construction of Questionnaire and
Instrument
1. Deciding which questionnaire to use
2. wording And structure of questions
3. Length and ordering of questions
4. Piloting and questionnaire
5. Obtaining a high response
1. DECIDING WHICH QUESTIONNAIRE TO USE
• If you’re sure that a questionnaire is the most appropriate
method for your research, you need to decide whether you
intend to construct a closed-ended, open-ended or
combination questionnaire.
• In open questions respondents use their own words to
answer a question, whereas in closed questions prewritten
response categories are provided.
2. WORDING AND STRUCTURE OF QUESTIONS
When constructing each question think about the words you
use. Avoid jargon (terminology) and technical terms whenever
possible. Try not to use words which may have a double
meaning or, as some words have different meanings for
different groups of people. Don’t use emotive words.
And, above all, avoid questions which will cause annoyance,
frustration, offence, embarrassment or sadness. You should
never make someone feel uncomfortable, for whatever reason,
as a result of filling in your questionnaire.
 3. LENGTH AND ORDERING OF QUESTIONS
• When you’re constructing a questionnaire, keep it as short as
possible. If it has to be longer because of the nature of your
research, think about whether your respondents will actually take
the time to fill it in.
• Some people will do so if they feel there is some personal benefit
to be gained. This is why long consumer behavior surveys offer
entry into large prize draws for completed questionnaires.
• If your budget is limited, you might be able to offer a copy of the
final report or other information which may be of use to the
respondent as an incentive.
4. PILOTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
• First of all, ask people who have not been involved in its
construction to read it through and see if there are any
ambiguities which you have not noticed.
• Once this has been done, alter the questions accordingly, then
send out a number of questionnaires to the type of people who
will be taking part in the main survey.
• Make sure they know it is a pilot test and ask them to forward
any comments they may have about the length, structure and
wording of the questionnaire.
• Go through each response very carefully, noting comments and
looking at the answers to the questions as this will help you to
discover whether there are still ambiguities present.
 5. OBTAINING A HIGH RESPONSE
• Questionnaires are big business and as more and more fall
through our letterboxes we become less willing to spend the
time completing them.
• You need to make yours stand out so that all your careful
planning and construction is not wasted. There are many simple
measures you can take to try to ensure a high response rate.
 Validation of questionnaire
• 1. Sample :When validating a questionnaire it is important
that a sample is used that is representative of the population in
which the instrument is to be used. It is not advisable to use the
same sample for both development and validation of a
questionnaire.

• 2. Sample size :There are no general criteria for the

required sample size in a validation study. A sample size of at
least 50-100 participants is generally recommended. However,
certain methods require larger numbers of participants
 3. Test-retest reliability.
• The time interval between assessments is important for
determining test-retest reliability. This interval should not be
too brief in order to prevent participants remembering what
they previously answered, and should not be too long either,
as participants’ scores may have actually changed.
• A period of 1 to 2 weeks is often recommended, however,
there may be reasons for shortening or lengthening this time.
 4. Validity and responsiveness,
• A longitudinal study (repeated measures and following same
people ) with pre- and post-testing is required for determining
responsiveness.
• It is important in this process that the design and potential
intervention being used represent the situation in which the
questionnaire will be used in the future.
• Designs such as this also lend themselves well to determining a
minimal important change for a questionnaire
 Meaning of sampling
• A Sampling is a part of the total population. It can be an
individual element or a group of elements selected from the
population.
• A sample is a smaller representation of larger whole. Although
it is a subset, it is representative of the population and suitable
for research in terms of cost, convenience, and time.
• It is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements
from the population.
• For example: If there are 145 in patients in a hospital and 40of
them are to be surveyed by the hospital administrator to
assess their level of satisfaction with the treatment received,
then these 40members will be the sample.
 Sampling techniques or methods

There are two broad methods of sampling used by

researchers,
1. probability (or) random sampling.
2. Non- probability (or) nonrandom
Probability - Meaning
Probability is the chance that something will happen - how
likely it is that some event will happen.

Sometimes you can measure a probability with a number: "10%

chance of rain", or you can use words such as impossible,
unlikely, possible, even chance, likely and certain.

Example: "It is unlikely to rain tomorrow".

 Types of Probability (Random)
Sampling
1. Simple random sample
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Area sampling
6. multistage- sampling
Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgment sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Panel sampling
5. Snowball sampling
1. Simple random sampling or unrestricted
Simple random sampling ensures that each possible sample
has an equal probability of being selected, and each item in the
entire population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
for example let us say there are 1000 elements in the
population, and we need a sample of 100. suppose we were to
drop pieces of paper in hat, each bearing the name of one of
the elements, and draw 100of those from the hat with our
eyes closed .
We know that the first piece drawn will have a 1/1000 chance
of being drawn, the next one a 1/999chance of being drawn
and so on.
2. Systematic sampling
• In systematic sampling the items are selected from the
population at a uniform interval defined in terms of time, order
or space.
• For example an observation may be made every half an hour, or
from a long queue of people every fourth person may be
selected, or in a bunch of documents every tenth document
may be selected.
• If we want a sample of 35 households from a total population
of 260 houses in a particular locality, then we could sample
every seventh house starting from a random number from 1 to
7 . Let us say that the random number is 7, then houses
numbered7,14,21,28 and so on.
• 3. Stratified sampling:
• In stratified sample the entire population is divided in
relatively homogeneous group. It can be divided in several
groups.
• For example all the students of a school may be divided in
groups of boy and girls. Once this is done random sample from
each of such groups is drawn independently. This approach is
suitable when there are identifiable sub-groups exist within
the population that differ significantly in respect of
characteristic under study.
• The human resource management director interested in
assessing the extent of training that the employees in the
system feel they need, the entire organist ion will form the
population for study. But the extent, quality, and intensity of
training desired by middle-level managers, lower-level
managers, first –line supervisors, computer analyst and clerical
workers and so on.
• Knowledge of kinds of differences in needs that exists for the
different groups will help the director to develop useful and
meaningful training programs for each group in the
organization
4. Cluster sampling
• In cluster sampling the population is divided into groups or
clusters, a sample of these clusters may be drawn. This sampling
design would be most useful when a heterogeneous group is to
be studied at one time.
• The population is divided into N groups, called clusters. The
researcher randomly selects n clusters to include in the sample.
• For example, a researcher wants to survey academic
performance of high school students in Tamilnadu .
• He can divide the entire population (population of Tamilnadu )
into different clusters (cities).
• Then the researcher selects a number of clusters depending on
his research through simple or systematic random sampling.
• Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected cities) the
researcher can either include all the high school students as
subjects or he can select a number of subjects from each
cluster through simple or systematic random sampling
5. Area sampling :
Area sampling is best suited when the goal of the research is
confined to a particular locality .
Area sampling is a special form of cluster sampling in which
the sample items are clustered on a geographic area basis.
For example, If one wanted to measure Pepsi sales in retail
stores, one might choose a sample of city blocks, and then
audit sales of all retail outlets on those sample blocks.
• 6. Multi stage sampling :
• Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of
units are embedded one in the other. It may be the in depth
research .
• First stage, random number of districts chosen in all
states.
• Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
• Then third stage units will be houses.
• All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are
surveyed.
For example : To identify the performance or efficiency of
commercial banks, first we do for state level, districts level,
towns, villages and houses.
 Non- Probability sampling
• 1. Convenience sampling
This non probability design, which is not generalizable
at all, is used at times to obtain some quick information to get
feel for the phenomenon or variables of interest.
For example:
The account executive has established a new accounting
system that maximally utilizes computer technology. Before
making further changes, he would like to get a feel for how the
accounting clerks react to the new system without making it
seem that he has doubts about their acceptability. He may then
casually talk to the first five accounting personnel that walk in
to his office , trying to gauge their reactions.
2. judgment sampling
Judgment sample is a type of nonrandom sample, which is
selected based on the opinion of an expert. Judgment sampling
design is sued where the collection of specialized informed
inputs on the topic area researched is vital, and the use of any
other sampling designs would not offer opportunities to obtain
the specialized information, as per the example that follows.
for example: A TV researcher wants a quick sample of
opinions about a political announcement. They stop what
seems like a reasonable cross-section of people in the street to
get their views.
 For example:
• A pharmaceutical company wants to trace the effects of a new
drug on patients with specific health problems(like virus fever,
asthma etc)it them contacts such individuals and , with the
group of voluntarily consenting patients, test the drug this is a
judgment sample because data are collected form appropriate
special groups .
3. Quota sampling
It is a method for selecting survey participants. In quota
sampling, a population is first segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then
judgment is used to select the subjects or units from each
segment based on a specified proportion.
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200
females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60. This
means that individuals can put a demand on who they want to
sample (targeting)
4. Panel sampling
Method of first selecting a group of participants through a
random sampling method and then asking that group for the
same information again several times over a period of time.
Therefore, each participant is given same survey or
interview at two or more time points; each period of data
collection called a "wave".
For example: we have been asking some persons about their
health problems at several times for the research purpose .
 5. Snowball sampling,
• In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying someone who
meets the criteria for inclusion in your study. You then ask
them to recommend others who they may know who also meet
the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to
representative samples, there are times when it may be the
best method available. Snowball sampling is especially useful
when you are trying to reach populations that are inaccessible
or hard to find.
• For instance, if you are studying research about the working
women's , you are not likely to be able to find good lists of
working women's people within a specific geographical area.
However, if you go to that area and identify one or two, you
may find that they know very well who the other working
women's people in their surrounding area are and how you can
find them.
 Sampling plan
• A sampling plan is the blueprint or frame work needed to ensure
that data collected are representative of the defined target
population.
A good sampling plan will include, the following steps:
(1) Define the target population,
(2) Select the data collection method,
(3) Identify the sampling frames needed,
(4) Select the appropriate sampling method,
(5) Determine necessary sample sizes and overall contact rates,
(6) Create an operating plan for selecting sampling units, and
(7) Execute the operational plan
 Steps in Developing a Sampling Plan

Step 1: Define the target population

• In any sampling plan, the first task of the researcher is to
determine and identify the complete group of people or
objects that should be investigated in the project.
• These elements become the prosperity sampling units
from which a sample will be drawn. Clear understanding of
the target population will help the researcher successfully
draw a representative sample.
• Step 2:
Select the data collection method 
Using the information problem definition, the data
requirements, and the established research objectives,
the researcher must choose a method for collecting the
required raw data from the target population elements.
Choices include interviewing approach or a self-
administered survey. The method of data collection
guides the researcher in identifying and securing the
necessary sampling frame(s) for conducting the
research.
Step 3:
Identifying the sampling frame(s) needed 
After gaining an understanding of whom or what should be
investigated, the researcher must assemble a list of eligible
sampling units. This list needs to contain enough
information about each prospective sampling unit so that
the researcher can successfully contact them.
In creating the necessary sampling frames, the researcher
must be aware of possible conditions of over-registration
and under-registration of the prospective sampling units.
These conditions will create sampling gaps or sampling
frame errors that decrease the likelihood of being able to
draw a representative sample.
 Step 4: Select the appropriate sampling
method 
The researcher must choose between two types of
sampling orientations : probability and non-probability.
Using a probability sampling method will always yield
better and more accurate information about the target
 population‘s parameters than will any of the
available non-probability sampling methods.
• Step 5: Determine necessary sample
sizes and overall contact rate
• In this step of a sampling plan, the researcher must
consider how precise the sample estimates must be
and how much time and money are available to collect
the required raw data. To determine the appropriate
sample size, decisions have to be made concerning
• (1) the variability of the population characteristic
under investigation, (2) the level of confidence desired
in the estimates, and (3) the degree of precision
desired in estimating the population characteristic.
The researcher must decide how many completed
surveys will need to enter the data analysis activities
of the overall research project.
• Step 6 : Create an operating plan for selecting
sampling units
• In this step, the researcher wants to clearly lay out, in detail,
the actual procedures to use in containing each of the
prospective respondents who were drawn into the sample.
• All instructions should be clearly written so that interviewers
know exactly what to do and how to handle any problems in
the process of contacting prospective respondents
• Step 7 : Execute the operational plan
• In some research projects, this step is similar to actually
conducting the data collection activities. (e.g., actual calling
of a prospective respondent to do a telephone interview).
The important thing in this stage is to maintain consistency
and control.
 Meaning of sampling size
• Sample size is the number of observations used for calculating
estimates of a given population.
• For example,
In organization the working employees are 2500 . In that
we are selecting only 100 or 200 randomly that is called sample
size.
 Determinants of sample size
1. Size of the universe
2. Resources available
3. Degree of accuracy or precision desired
4. Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the universe
5. Nature of study
6. method of sampling adopted
7. Nature of respondents
8. Level of precision
9. Confidence level
10. Degree of variability
1. Size of the universe:
The larger the size of the universe, the bigger should be the
sample size

2. Resources available:
If the resources available are vast a larger sample size could be
taken. How ever, in most cases resources constitute a big
constraint on sample size.
3.Degree of accuracy or precision desired:
The greater the degree of accuracy desired , the larger should
be the sample size. However, it does not necessarily mean that
bigger samples always ensure greater accuracy.
It may ensure better results even when it is small compared to
a situation in which a large sample size is selected by
inexperienced people.
4. Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the
universe:
If the universe consists of homogenous units a small may serve
the purpose but if the universe consists of heterogeneous units
a large sample may be inevitable.

5. Nature of study:
For an intensive and continuous study a small sample may be
suitable. But for studies which are not likely to be repeated and
are quite extensive in nature . It may be necessary to take a
larger sample size.
6. Method of sampling adopted:
The size of sample is also influenced by the type of sampling
plan adopted.
for example: if there is a simple random sample it may
necessitate bigger sample size. However, in a properly drawn
stratified sampling plan, even a small sample may give better
results.
7. Nature of respondents:
where it is expected a large number of respondents will
not cooperate and send back the questionnaire,
a large sample should be selected.
8. The level of precision :
The level of precision , sometimes called sampling error, is the
range in which the true value of the population is estimated to
be .
Thus if a researcher finds that 60% of farmers in the sample
have adopted a recommended practice with a precision rate of
+5% then he or she can conclude that between 55% and 65% of
farmers in the population have adopted the practice.
• 9. The confidence level:
The confidence or rise level is based on ideas
encompassed under the central limit theorem. The key idea
encompassed in the central limit theorem is that when a
population is repeatedly sample, the average value of the
attribute obtained by those samples is equal to the true
population value
for example:
In other words, this means that if a 95% confidence level is
selected, 95 out of 100 samples will have the true population
value within the range of precision specified earlier. There is
always a chance that the sample you obtain does not
represent the true population value.
• 10. Degree of variability:
The Third criterion, the degree of variability in the
attributes being measured, refers to the distribution of
attributes in the population. The more heterogeneous a
population, the larger the sample size required to obtain a
given level of precision. The less variable (more homogeneous)
a population, the smaller the sample size.
A proportion of 50% indicates a greater level of variability than
either 20% or 80% .