POROSITY

Many slides contain more detailed notes that may be shown using the “Notes Page View”
 Acknowledgments

• Dr. Walt Ayers, PETE 311, Fall 2001

• NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999
– Note that many of the NExT slides appears to have been
obtained from other primary sources that are not cited
 RESERVOIR POROSITY

Definition: Porosity is the fraction of a rock that

is occupied by voids (pores).

Discussion Topics

• Origins and descriptions

• Factors that effect porosity

• Methods of determination
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix Pore space

Note different use of “matrix”
by geologists and engineers
 POROSITY DEFINITION
Porosity: The fraction of a rock that is
occupied by pores
• Porosity is an intensive property describing the
fluid storage capacity of rock

Vp
Vb  Vma
Porosity    
Vb Vb
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE

Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

OBJECTIVES
To provide an understanding of
• The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
• The difference between original (primary) and
induced (secondary) porosity
• The difference between total and effective
porosity
• Laboratory methods of porosity determination
• Determination of porosity from well logs
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
IGNEOU SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
S
Rock-forming Source of

Rocks under high

material

Molten materials in Weathering and

temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust

Recrystallization due to
process

Crystallization Sedimentation, burial

heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Clastics

•Carbonates

•Evaporites
CLASTIC AND CARBONATE ROCKS
Clastic Rocks
Consist Primarily of Silicate Minerals

Are Classified on the Basis of:

- Grain Size
- Mineral Composition

Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3-2 Anion Group)
Limestone - Predominately Calcite (Calcium
Carbonate, CaCO3)
Dolomite - Predominately Dolostone (Calcium
Magnesium Carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2 )
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES,
Relative Abundances
Sandstone
and conglomerate
(clastic)
~11%

Limestone and
dolomite
Siltstone
~14%
and shale
(clastic)
~75%
 Comparison of Compositions of Clastic
and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand Quartz Allochemical Pelloids
Feldspar Grains Oolites
Grains Intractlasts
Rock Fragments

Average Average
Sandstone Sparry
Average Limestone
Mudrock Average
(Shale) Micritic
Limestone

Clay Chemical Microcrystalline Chemical

Matrix Cement Matrix Cement
Calcite Calcite
Illite Quartz
Kaolinite Calcite
Smectite Hematite
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
5

Subarkose Sublitharenite
25 25

Lithic
Subarkose

50 50

Lit
se

h
ko

are
Ar

nit
25 Lithic 25

e
Felspathic
Arkose Litharenite

Unstable
Rock
Feldspar 10 25 50 25 10
Fragments
(modified from McBride, 1963)
FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE

Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
 FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologist’s Classification

1. Framework Note different use of “matrix”

2. Matrix Engineering
“matrix” by geologists and engineers
3. Cement
4. Pores

PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

0.25 mm
 ORIGINS OF POROSITY IN
CLASTICS AND CARBONATES
(Genetic Classification)

• Primary (original)

• Secondary (induced)
(Generally more complex than
primary porosity)
 PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY

• Developed at deposition
• Typified by
– Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates
– Intercrystalline and fenestral pores of carbonates
• Usually more uniform than induced porosity
SECONDARY (INDUCED) POROSITY
• Developed by geologic processes after
deposition (diagenetic processes)
• Examples
– Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates
– Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates
– Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,
and carbonates
 SANDSTONES POROSITY TYPES

Intergranular (Primary) Interstitial Void Space Between

Framework Grains

Micropores Small Pores Mainly Between Detrital

Framework Grains or Cement

Dissolution Partial or Complete Dissolution of

or Authigenic Grains (Can Also Occur
Within Grains

Fractures Breakage Due to Earth Stresses

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (diagenetic)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
 ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY
OF CLASTIC GRAINS
Porosity

SPHERICITY

High

Low

Very Sub- Sub- Well-

Angular Angular Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Angular
ROUNDNESS

Porosity
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
 GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts

Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact

This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48%
 Porosity Calculations - Uniform
Spheres

• Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

4  r3
• Matrix volume = 3

• Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

 Pore Volume
Porosity 
Bulk Volume

Bulk Volume  Matrix Volume


Bulk Volume

8 r3  4 / 3  r3 
  1   47.6%
8 r3 2  3
RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 27 %
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres
Porosity = 14%
 Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted

SORTING
TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape Change of Orientation

Change of Packing
 PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular Irregular Bioturbated Sandstone
Layers Layers (Whole Core)

Mottles Mottles Homogeneous

(Distinct) (Indistinct) Deposits
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A. October 1985
STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)

SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Whole Core
Quality
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
 DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Sandstone Comp. 1. Primary and secondary “matrix” porosity system
• Framework 2. Fracture porosity system
• Matrix
• Cement FRACTURE DISSOLUTION
• Pores PORE

PORE
FRAMEWORK
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
MATRIX

FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

Note different use of “matrix” 0.25 mm

by geologists and engineers
 SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
PRF = Plutonic Rock
Q Fragment
Q = Quartz
Q

PRF KF
KF

P = Pore
Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
P
Pores are Impregnated With
Blue-Dyed Epoxy
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains ~0.25 mm in Diameter/Length Photo by R. Kugler
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Porosity in Sandstone
Pore Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Quartz Variation in Grain Size
Grain Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler
 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore Throats in
Sandstone May
Be Lined With
A Variety of
Cement Minerals
That Affect
Petrophysical
Properties

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Tordillo Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

 POROSITY IN SANDSTONE

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons

Pore Throats Restrict

Flow through pores

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA ~ 10 m
(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Electron Photomicrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY

Intergranular
Pore

Intergranular Pores
Microporosity Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids

Quartz Micropores Contain

Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain
Irreducible Water

Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Partially Dissolution of
Dissolved Framework Grains
Feldspar (Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Pore Enhance the
Interconnected
Quartz Detrital Pore System
Grain
This is Secondary
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina Porosity

Photo by R.L. Kugler

 DISSOLUTION POROSITY

Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Partially Effective Pore System
Dissolved
Feldspar

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Photo by R.L. Kugler
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
 Comparison of Compositions of Clastic
and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand Quartz Allochemical Pelloids
Feldspar Grains Oolites
Grains Intractlasts
Rock Fragments

Average Average
Sandstone Sparry
Average Limestone
Mudrock Average
(Shale) Micritic
Limestone

Clay Chemical Microcrystalline Chemical

Matrix Cement Matrix Cement
Calcite Calcite
Illite Quartz
Kaolinite Calcite
Smectite Hematite
 Iles Gambier
Tuamotu Archipelago
Maldive Islands
FOLK CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Over 2/3 Lime Mud Matrix Subequal Over 2/3 Spar Cement
Over Spar & Sorting Sorting Rounded,
0-1% 1-10% 10-50% Lime Mud Poor Abraded
50% Good

Fossili- Poorly
Micrite & Sparse Packed Washed Unsorted Sorted Rounded
ferous
Dismicrite Biomicrite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite
Micrite Biomicrite

Sandy Clayey or Sub- Mature Super-

Claystone
Claystone Immature Sandstone mature SS SS mature SS
Depositional Texture Recognizable Depositional Texture
Not Recognizable
DUNHAM CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Depositional Texture Recognizable Depositional

Components Not Bound Together During Deposition Texture
Original Components
Contains Mud Lacks Mud, Bound Together Not Recognizable
(clay and silt size particles Grain- During Deposition
Mud Supported Grain Supported
<10 % >10 % Supported D unhamCrb onateR ckClasif tion
(clayndsCompetN DepositnalT iltszeparcBoundTghDM exturRcognizaOLksMd,G- epositn bleinaComptsBudTghrDN Textur tRecognizablps
Gra<10%ins>MudSp GrainSupoted ins%orted Suported
MudstoneWa Packstone ckeston Grainstoe Boundste Carbonte
Crystaline

Grains Grains Crystalline

Mudstone Wackestone Packstone Grainstone Boundstone Carbonate
 CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported
Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate
Dissolution of Cements and Grains
 Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic

Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework

Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug

Breccia Boring Burrow Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective
(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE

Moldic
Pores
• Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)

Moldic • Isolated pores

Pore
• Low effective porosity

Calcite • Low permeability

Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light Blue areas are pores.

Smackover Formation, Alabama (Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE
Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores • Combination pore system

• Moldic pores formed through

dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)

• Connected pores

Moldic • High effective porosity

Pore
• High permeability
Thin section micrograph
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
 PORE SPACE
CLASSIFICATION
(In Terms of Fluid Properties)
PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
Total Pore Volume
• Total porosity, t =
Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity, e =
Interconne cted Pore Space
Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity – of great importance;
contains the mobile fluid
 COMPARISON OF TOTAL AND
EFFECTIVE POROSITIES

• Very clean sandstones : e  t

• Poorly to moderately well -cemented

intergranular materials: t  e

• Highly cemented materials and most

carbonates: e < t
MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY

• Core samples (Laboratory)

• Openhole wireline logs

 SANDSTONE POROSITY MEASURED
BY VARIOUS TECHNIQUES

Total Porosity - Neutron Log

Total Porosity - Density Log
Absolute or Total Porosity
Rock
Matrix Oven-Dried Core Analysis Porosity
Rock
te u
s
d
n
S
rio
a
V
y
b rity iq
o
P
n
h
c
e
T
s rd
a
M
s
e
u
TotalPrsiy- DensityLogNurAblTaP rosity
MatrixQuz VShaleOvn-DriCyufc edCorAnalysiHumLS Porsityge,Incdl-D Isolated
(OH)WaterSucFmwok Hydration&IelsL l CapilryWtePos HydrocabnPes Pores
BoundWaterImbilc Waterlo PoreVlum

VShale Humidity-Dried
Core Analysis Porosity
Quartz Clay Clay Surfaces Small Large, Interconnected Isolated
(Framework) Layers & Interlayers Pores Pores Pores
Capillary
Structural Water
(OH -) Water Hydration or Hydrocarbon
Bound Water Pore Volume
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
(modified from Eslinger and Pevear, 1988)
INFORMATION FROM CORES*
Standard Analysis Special Core Analysis
• Porosity • Vertical permeability to air
• Relative permeability
• Horizontal permeability to
air • Capillary pressure

• Grain density • Cementation exponent (m)

and saturation exponent (n)

*Allows calibration of wireline log results

 CORING ASSEMBLY
AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection

PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing

Outer barrel

Inner barrel
Fluid
vent
Core retaining
ring
Core bit
COMING OUT OF HOLE
WITH CORE BARREL
WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela

Photo by W. Ayers
SIDEWALL SAMPLING GUN

Core bullets

Formation rock

Core sample
SIDEWALL CORING TOOL

Coring bit

Samples
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.
PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES

WHOLE CORE

• Provides larger samples

• Better and more consistent representation of

formation

• Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more

complex lithologies
 WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.
PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
• Smaller samples
• Less representative of heterogeneous formations
• Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to high-
porosity formation
• In low-porosity formations,  from core plugs tends
to be much greater than  from whole cores
• Scalar effects in fractured reservoirs
CORE PLUG

Sparks and Ayers, unpublished

NEXT:

LABORATORY DETERMINATION
OF POROSITY
 Student Questions / Answers
• intraparticle porosity in carbonates (JC1):
– vugs and fractures
• why are clays important (JC1):
– one major reason is that clays conduct electricity, this can effect
water saturation calculations if not accounted for
• fines (ABW):
– solid particles so small that they can flow with fluids through
pores - but they can also plug pore throats
• tortuousity (ABW):
– the indirect curvy flow path through the pore system to get
from point A to point B
• holocene:
– referring to the Holocene Epoch (geology) or in general
meaning about the last 10,000 years.