Fuels

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 SYLLABUS

• Classification of Fuels, Calorific Value, Calorific Intensity and Flame

Temperature,
• Determination of Calorific Value of solids and Non- Volatile Liquid Fuels
• Determination of Calorific Value of Gases and Volatile Liquid fuels, Criteria
for selecting a fuel
• Synthesis of gasoline from non- petroleum sources- Fischer – Tropsch
Process, Bergius Process
• Purification of gasoline,
• Gasoline Alternatives : Production, Properties & Uses of LPG, LNG
• Other liquid Fuels- Rocket Fuel, Benzols, Power Alcohol, Biodiesel &
Diesohol
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 INTRODUCTION

A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the main constituent

which on proper burning gives a large amount of heat that can be used
economically.

For example: wood, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel and water gas.

Combustion reaction of a fuel can be represented as follows:

• CnH2n+2 + O2  CO2(g) + H2O (g) + heat

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 Classification of fuel

Fuel

Prim ary Secondary

or or
natural fuel Artificial fuel

Solid Liquid Gaseous Solid Liquid Gas

(w ood, (petroleum ) (N atural (Charcoal) (petrol) (coal
coal) gas) gas)

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 Calorific value

• Calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of heat liberated when one unit of
fuel is burnt completely.

• Gross or Higher calorific value (G.C.V or H.C.V): It is the total quantity of

heat liberated when one unit of fuel is burnt completely and products of
combustion has been cooled to room temperature.

• Net or Lower calorific value (N.C.V or L.C.V) ): It is the total quantity of

heat liberated when one unit of fuel is burnt completely and products of
combustion has been permitted to escape.
L.C.V= H.C.V – Latent heat of water vapour formed
• Latent heat of steam= 587 cal/gm
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 Units of Calorific value

Units of Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous

calorific value fuel
CGS method cal/g cal/g cal/cm3
MKS method Kcal/Kg Kcal/Kg Kcal/m3

FPS method B.Th.U/Ib B.Th.U/Ib BTU/ft3

SI method Joule/Kg Joule/Kg Joule/m3

1 Kcal/kg= 1.8 B.Th.U/Ib

1 Kcal/m3 = 0.1077 B.Th.U/ft3
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 Characteristic of good fuel

A good fuel should have

• high calorific value

• moderate ignition temperature
• low moisture content
• low non combustible matter content
• low cost and easy availability
• easy to transport and storage cost should be low
• products of combustion should not be harmful.
• burn in air without much smoke
• combustion should be easily controllable.
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 Theoretical calculation of calorific value
using Dulongs formula
H.C.V= [8080C + 34500(H-O/8)+ 2240 S]/100 kcal/kg
Where,

C= % of carbon in the fuel

H= % of hydrogen in the fuel
O= % of oxygen in the fuel
S= % of sulphur in the fuel
And
Calorific value of carbon= 8080 kcal/kg
Calorific value of hydrogen= 34500 kcal/kg
Calorific value of sulphur= 2240 kcal/kg
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 Theoretical calculation of calorific value using
Dulongs formula

L.C.V= H.C.V – Latent heat of water vapour formed

=[H.C.V-9H x 587/100]kcal/kg
=[H.C.V-0.09H x 587]kcal/kg

This is based on the fact that 1 part of H by mass gives 9 parts of

H2O and latent heat of steam is 587 Kcal/Kg.

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 Numerical problems based on calorific value

Problem 1: In a sample of coal containing carbon 60%, hydrogen

6%, sulphur 0.5%, nitrogen 0.2% and ash 0.3%. Calculate the gross
calorific value (G.C.V) or Higher calorific value (H.C.V).

Problem 2: Calculate the gross calorific value (G.C.V) and net

calorific value (N.C.V) of a sample of fuel containing carbon 85%,
hydrogen 8%, sulphur 1%, nitrogen 2% and ash 4%.
Latent heat of steam = 587 cal/g

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 Calorific Intensity

• The temperature of a fuel attained by its combustion.

• When a fuel burns without appreciable flame, the whole of the heat liberated because of
combustion is concentrated over a relatively smaller area.
• Under such conditions, solid fuel burning rapid ally results in a high local fuel-bed
temperature.
• Then it is to be said fuel is burning with high calorific intensity.
• When the fuel having appreciable amount of volatile matter , a flame is produced almost
invariably.
•Then total heat produced by the fuel is librated over the entire area of the burning mass
and larger area of flame the lesser the conc. of heat.
•Hence in general it can be said that flaming fuels burn with lower calorific intensities
than the flameless fuels.

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 Flame Temperature

• The maximum temperature to which an object can be heated by the flame.

• Rate of heating of an object increases as the difference in temperature

between flame and the object increases.

• Temperature of flame mainly depends upon calorific value of gas and on the
quantities of the total gaseous products formed and their respective specific
heats.
Theoretical flame temperature = (heat of combustion+ sensible heat in fuel and air)
Total quantity of the combustion product)X (their mean specific heats)
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 Bomb Calorimeter for determination of
calorific value of solid and liquid fuel

https://www.google.co.in/search?
q=Bomb+Calorimeter+for+determination+of+calorific+value+of+solid+and+liquid+fuel+ppt&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X
&ved=0ahUKEwjIqc35_ajUAhXKG5QKHQczBRQQ
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 Principle of Bomb Calorimeter

• When a certain weighed quantity of a fuel is burnt in a calorimeter,

the heat given out is used up in heating the calorimeter and the water
inside the calorimeter.

• If we equate the heat given out by the fuel to the heat taken up by the
calorimeter and the water, the calorific value of a fuel can be
determined.

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 Construction and working principle of
Bomb calorimeter
• It consist of a stainless steel bomb in which combustion of fuel is made to
take place.
•A known mass of the given fuel is taken in nickel crucible supported over a
ring inside the steel bomb which is connected with two electrodes.
•The bomb lid is tightly screwed and filled with O2 up to 25 atm.
•The bomb is then lowered into the copper calorimeter containing known mass
of water.
•The water is stirred with the help of mechanical stirrer and the initial temp is
recorded.
•The electrodes are then connected to 6 volt battery and the circuit is
completed.
•Uniform stirring of water is continued and the maximum temp is recorded.
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 Calculation of Bomb Calorimeter

• Let, X= mass in gm of the fuel sample

• W= mass of water in calorimeter
• w= water equivalent of calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer, bomb etc in gm
• t1= Initial temp of water in oC
• t2= Final temp of water in oC
• C= calorific value of the fuel
• Now, Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat taken up by the calorimeter
• X * C = (W +w) (t2 - t1)
• C= (W +w) (t2 - t1)/ X
• i. e, H.C. V = (W +w) (t2 - t1)/ X
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 Boy’s Calorimeter for determination of
calorific value of gases & volatile Liquid Fuels

https://www.google.co.in/search?
q=Bomb+Calorimeter+for+determination+of+calorific+value+of+solid+and+liquid+fuel+ppt&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X
&ved=0ahUKEwjIqc35_ajUAhXKG5QKHQczBRQQ
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 Description of Boy’s or Junkers gas calorimeter
Description of the apparatus:-
(i) Bunsen Burner: special type of Burner clamped at the bottom. It can be pulled
out of the combustion chamber or pushed up in chamber during the carrying out
combustion.
(ii) Gasometer: It is employed to measure the volume of gas burning per unit time.
This attached with manometer fitted with the thermometer so that pressure and
temperature of the gas before burning can be read.
(iii) Pressure governor: It can control the supply of quantity of gas at give
pressure.
(iv) Gas Calorimeter/ Combustion chamber: It is a vertical cylinder, which is
surrounded by annular space for heating water and interchange coils. The entire
is covered by an outer jacket in order to reduce the heat loss by radiation and
convection.
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 Procedure of Determination

• Install the equipment on a flat rigid platform near an uninterrupted

continuous water source of ½” size and a drain pipe.
• Connect the gas source to the pressure regulator, gas flow meter and the
burner respectively in series
• Insert the thermometer / temperature sensors, into their respective places to
measure water inlet and outlet temperatures and a thermometer to measure
the flue gas temperature at the flue gas outlet
• Start the water flow through the calorimeter at a study constant flow rate
and allow it to drain through over flow.
• Start the gas flow slowly and light the burner out side the calorimeter

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 Procedure of Determination

When the steady condition are established, then the reading are taken
simultaneously of:
• The volume of gaseous fuel burnt (V) at given temperature and pressure
in certain period of time (t).

• The quantity of water (W Kg) passing through the annular space during
the same interval of time

• The steady rise in temperature (T2-T1)

• The mass of water (steam) condensed (in Kg) in the outlet water.
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 Calculation
Volume of gas burn at STP in certain time (t)= V , Mass of the cooling water used in time t = W
Temperature of inlet water = T1, Temperature of outlet water = T2
Mass of steam condensed in time t in graduated cylinder = m
Higher calorific value of fuel = L , Specific heat of water = S
Heat absorbed by circulating water = W(T2-T1)×Specific heat of water (s)
Heat produced by combustion of fuel = VL

Thus VL = W(T2-T1)×S HCV (L) = W(T2-T1)×S/V

L - amount of water collected x latent heat

LCV = V

m x 587
L- Kcal/m3
LCV = V 1 cm3 of water = 1 g of water

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 Criteria for selecting a Fuel

• Calorific value should be high

• Moisture content should be low

• Ash content should be low

• Sulphur and phosphorus contents of coal should be

low

• Size of coal should be uniform

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 Synthesis of gasoline from non- petroleum
sources- Fischer – Tropsch Process
•In this process, coke is heated and steam is passed over it, thereby, water gas (CO +
H2) is formed
C + H2O (CO+ H2)
•Water gas is purified by passing through the Fe2O3 (to remove H2S) and then into Fe2O3
. Na2O3 (to remove organic sulfur compounds).
•This purified gas is compressed to 5 to 25 atm. and then led through convertor
(containing a catalyst, consisting of a mixture of 100parts cobalt, 5 parts thoria, 8 parts
magnesia) maintained at about 200-300˚C.
•A mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons results
n CO + 2n H2 CnH2n + n H2O

n CO + (2n+1) H2 CnH2n+2 + n H2O

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 Fischer – Tropsch Process

https://www.google.co.in/search?
q=fischer+tropsch+process+ppt&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwintKGSkKvUAhWHkpQKHby
jDEsQ_AUICygC&biw=1024&bih
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 Bergius Process ( Hydrogenation of coal)

•The low ash coal is finely powered and made into a paste with heavy oil and then a
catalyst (composed of tin and nickeloleate) is incorporated.

•The whole is heated with hydrogen at 450˚C and under pressure 200-250 atm. for
about 1.5 h, during which hydrogen combines with coal to form saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbon, which decompose at prevailing at high temperature and
pressure to yield low boiling liquid hydrocarbons.

•The issuing gas are led to condenser, where a liquid resembling crude oil is obtained,
which fractionated to get (a) gasoline (b) middle oil (c) heavy Oil.

•The heavy oil is used again for making paste with fresh coal
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 Bergius Process ( Hydrogenation of coal)

http://www.transtutors.com/homework-help/engineering-chemistry/fuels/bergius-process.aspx

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 Gasoline Alternatives

1. LPG
2. LNG
Other liquid Fuels-
3. Rocket Fuel
4. Benzols
5. Power Alcohol
6. Biodiesel &
7. Diesohol.

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 Production, Properties & Uses of LPG

LPG
• By-product during fractional distillation of crude petroleum oil or by
cracking of heavy oil.
• It consists of Hydrocarbons (propane and butane).
• liquefied under pressure.
• economically stored and transported in cylinders.
• Its calorific value is about 25,000 kcal/m3 LPG
• Constituent parentage N-butane 38.5 Iso butane 37 propane 24.5

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 Production of LPG

1. Refinery operations (LPG FROM CRUDE OIL)

LPG is extracted from natural gas at well head by following

processes: a) compression & cooling
b) adsorption
c) absorption
d) cryogenic processes (Such as refrigeration by
direct expansion based on joule- Thomson effect, cascaded
refrigeration and Turbo expansion

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12/09/2020 30
https://www.slideshare.net/tbmeng/lpg-45300472
 Production of LPG

2. Wet Natural Gas or Associated Gas (LPG FROM NATURAL

GAS)

LPG is obtained by recovering of the required C3/C4 fractions from

main refinery gases produced from distillation, thermal/catalytic
cracking, reforming and hydro cracking gases.

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https://www.slideshare.net/tbmeng/lpg-45300472 32
 Properties of LPG

1. LPG consists of hydrocarbons, so it burns cleanly without leaving any

residue.
2. The LPG (hydrocarbons) has higher calorific value than the other
Production, Properties & Uses of LPG
gaseous fuels containing H2/ CO. The calorific value is 7 times higher
than coal gas and 3 times higher than natural gas.
3. LPG is characterized by high thermal efficiency and heating rate
4. Environmentally friendly fuel, with minimal sulphur content and
lowest black carbon emission 

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 Advantages of LPG

1. It is easy to manipulate.
2. Comparatively it is less of health hazard, even in case of
leakage.
Production, Properties & Uses of LPG
3. Needs little care for maintenance.
4. It is free from CO, so it is less hazardous.
5. Due to its faint odour, leakage cannot be easily detected.
6. Handling must be done under high pressure.
7. LPG is suitable only for the engines working under high
compression ratio. 

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 LNG

1. LNG – liquefied natural gas – is methane (CH4) that is

liquefied by chilling below -161°C.
2. This the same natural gasProperties
Production, that is piped
& Uses to
of homes
LPG and
businesses.
3. As liquid, the volume of LNG reduce to 1/600 its gaseous
state.
4. This makes LNG transportable in cryogenic ships or trucks.
5. After regasification, it reverts to and is used as natural gas.

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 Properties of LNG

1. LNG, which is predominantly Methane, is an odourless, non-toxic and non-

corrosive.
2. Odorant is added, for safety, before the gas is piped to end users.
3. If spilled, the LNG evaporates quickly&and
Production, Properties Usesdisperses.
of LPG
4. Boiling Point: -161°C
5. Liquid Density: 426kg/m3
6. Gas Density (25°C): 0.656 kg/m3
7. Specific Gravity (15°C): 0.554
8. Flammability Limits (in air by volume): 5.3% to 14%
9. Auto Ignition Temperature: 595°C
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 Uses of LNG

1. The primary use of LNG is to simplify transport of natural gas from the
source to a destination. On the large scale, this is done when the source
and the destination are across an ocean from each other.
2. It can also be used when adequate pipeline capacity is not available.
3. LNG can also be used to meet peak
Production, demand
Properties & Uses when
of LPGthe normal pipeline

infrastructure can meet most demand needs, but not the peak demand
needs.
4. LNG can be used to fuel internal combustion engines.
5. LNG is in the early stages of becoming a mainstream fuel for
transportation needs.

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 Other Liquid Fuels

1. Rocket Fuel
2. Benzols
3. Power Alcohol
4. Biodiesel
5. Diesohol.

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 Rocket Fuel

1. Rocket propellants are composed of a fuel and an oxidizer.

2. It can be simple as sugar and saltpeter (for backyard rockets) or a little
more complex, as APCP (used for the Space Shuttle). 
3. For large space rockets, there are mostly two types of propellants: solid
and liquid.
4. The solid rocket boosters (located at on both sides of the large orange tank)
contain APCP, which uses Ammonium Per chlorate as oxidizer and
Aluminum and a specific polymer as fuel. 
5. The liquid propellant is composed of liquid oxygen (oxidizer) and liquid
hydrogen (fuel) and it is contained in the large orange tank .

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 Bibliography

• NPTEL LECTURES: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v

=k_RErdKwaAg
• NPTEL LECTURES:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=co1bqam9zm8

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 FAQs

1. What do you meant by Fuel.

2. Define Calorific value.
3. Discuss then uses of LNG.
4. What is the criteria for selecting a fuel.

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