Chapter SIX

Motivation
Concepts

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What
What Is
Is Motivation?
Motivation?

Direction

Intensity Persistence

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 What
What Is
Is Motivation?
Motivation?
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Intensity:
Intensity:How
Howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.
2. Direction:
Direction:Toward
Towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.
3. Persistence:
Persistence:How
Howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries

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 Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs Theory
Theory (Maslow)
(Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualization; as each need
is substantially satisfied, the next
need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization
Self-Actualization
The
Thedrive
driveto
tobecome
becomewhat
whatone
oneisiscapable
capableof
of
becoming
becoming
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 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs Self and self-actualization
needs
Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
E X H I B I T 6–1
E X H I B I T 6–1
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 Assumptions
Assumptions of
of Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy
Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all
needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

Individuals therefore
must move up the Maslow
MaslowApplication
Application
hierarchy in order. AAhomeless
homelessperson
person
will
willnot
notbe
bemotivated
motivatedto
to
meditate!
meditate!

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 Having
Having Little
Little Ambition
Ambition

Theory
Theory XX Disliking
Disliking Work
Work
Managers
ManagersSee
SeeWorkers
Workersas…
as…

Avoiding
Avoiding Responsibility
Responsibility

Self-Directed
Self-Directed

Theory
Theory YY Enjoying
Enjoying Work
Work
Managers
Managers See
SeeWorkers
Workersas…
as…
Accepting
Accepting Responsibility
Responsibility
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 Herzberg’s
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
not opposites of the same thing!
Hygiene
Hygiene
Factors Separate Constructs Motivators
Motivators
Factors – Hygiene Factors—Extrinsic
••Salary and Related to Dissatisfaction ••Achievement
Achievement
Salary
••Work – Motivation Factors—Intrinsic
••Responsibility
Responsibility
Work and Related to Satisfaction
Conditions
Conditions ••Growth
Growth
••Company
Company
Policies
Policies

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Comparison
Comparisonof ofSatisfiers
Satisfiers
and
and Dissatisfiers
Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing events
on the job that led to extreme Factors characterizing
job dissatisfaction events on the job that
led to extreme job
satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time:
How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright E X H I B I T 6–2
E X H I B I T 6–2
© 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.
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 Contrasting
Contrasting Views
Views of
of Satisfaction
Satisfaction and
and
Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction

E X H I B I T 6–3
E X H I B I T 6–3

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 David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs
Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation
The drive to excel, to The desire for friendly
achieve in relation to a set and close personal
of standards, to strive to relationships
succeed

Need for Power Bottom

BottomLine
Line
The need to make others Individuals
Individualshave
have
behave in a way that they different
different levels
levelsofof needs
needs
would not have behaved in
ineach
eachof ofthese
theseareas,
areas,
otherwise and
andthose
thoselevels
levelswill
will
drive
drivetheir
their behavior.
behavior.
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 Matching
Matching High
High Achievers
Achievers and
and Jobs
Jobs

E X H I B I T 6–4
E X H I B I T 6–4

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 Cognitive
Cognitive Evaluation
Evaluation Theory
Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had
been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to
decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to
jobs that are neither extremely
dull nor extremely interesting. Hint:
Hint: For
Forthis
this theory,
theory,
think
thinkabout
abouthow howfun
funitit isis
to
toread
readin inthe
thesummer,
summer,
but
butonce
oncereading
readingisis
assigned
assignedto toyou
youfor
for aa
grade,
grade,youyoudon’t
don’t want
want
to
todo
doit!
it!
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What
What Would
Would Herzberg
Herzberg Say?
Say? What
What Would
Would
Maslow
Maslow Say?
Say?

E X H I B I T 6–5
E X H I B I T 6–5

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 Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with
self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

But, the relationship between goals and performance

will depend on:
•Goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•National culture

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 Goal
Goal Setting
Setting in
in Action:
Action: MBO
MBO Programs
Programs

Management
ManagementBy
ByObjectives
ObjectivesPrograms
Programs
••Company
Companywide
widegoals
goalsand
andobjectives
objectives
••Goals
Goalsaligned
alignedatatall
alllevels
levels
••Based
Basedon
onGoal
GoalSetting
SettingTheory
Theory

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 What
What Is
Is MBO?
MBO?
Management by Objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period, with
feedback on goal progress

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.1. Goal
Goalspecificity
specificity
2.2. Participative
Participativedecision
decisionmaking
making
3.3. An
Anexplicit
explicittime
timeperiod
period
4.4. Performance
Performancefeedback
feedback

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 Cascading
Cascading of
of Objectives
Objectives

E X H I B I T 6–1
E X H I B I T 6–1

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 Linking
Linking MBO
MBO and
and Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory

MBO Goal-Setting Theory

Goal Specificity Yes Yes
Goal Difficulty Yes Yes
Feedback Yes Yes
Participation Yes No
(qualified)

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 Why
Why MBOs
MBOs Fail
Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities

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 Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy

••An
Anindividual’s
individual’s feeling
feelingthatthats/he
s/hecan
cancomplete
completeaa
task
task(e.g.
(e.g. “I“Iknow
knowIIcan!”)
can!”)
••Enhances
Enhancesprobability
probabilitythat
thatgoals
goalswill
willbe
be
achieved
achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self-esteem,
Self-esteem, which
whichis:
is:
Individuals’
Individuals’degree
degreeof
ofliking
likingor
ordisliking
disliking
themselves
themselves

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 Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy and
and Goal
Goal Setting
Setting

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Four
Four Ways
Ways of
of Increasing
Increasing Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy (Bandura)
(Bandura)

1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal

Note: Basic Premise/Mechanism of Pygmalion and

Galatea Effects

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 Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its
consequences

Assumptions:
Assumptions:
•• Behavior
Behaviorisisenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
•• Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbe
bemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
byproviding
providing
(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
•• Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendstotobe
berepeated.
repeated.

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 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with
those of others and then respond to eliminate any
inequities

Referent
Referent
Comparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside

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 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

E X H I B I T 6–8
E X H I B I T 6–8

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 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Choices
Choicesfor
fordealing
dealingwith
withinequity:
inequity:
1.1. Change
Changeinputs
inputs(slack
(slackoff)
off)
2.2. Change
Changeoutcomes
outcomes(increase
(increaseoutput)
output)
3.3. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofself
self
4.4. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofothers
others
5.5. Choose
Chooseaadifferent
differentreferent
referentperson
person
6.6. Leave
Leavethe
thefield
field(quit
(quitthe
thejob)
job)

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 Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Propositions
Propositionsrelating
relatingto
toinequitable
inequitablepay:
pay:
1.1. Overrewarded
Overrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
producemore
morethan
than
equitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees.
employees.
2.2. Overrewarded
Overrewardedpiece-work
piece-workemployees
employeesproduce
produceless,
less,
but
butdo dohigher
higherquality
qualitypiece
piecework.
work.
3.3. Underrewarded
Underrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
producelower
lower
quality
qualitywork.
work.
4.4. Underrewarded
Underrewardedemployees
employeesproduce
producelarger
largerquantities
quantities
ofoflower-quality
lower-qualitypiece
piecework
workthan
thanequitably
equitablyrewarded
rewarded
employees.
employees.

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 Justice
Justice and
and Equity
Equity Theory
Theory

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 Three
Three Types
Types of
of Justice
Justice
Distributive Justice Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the Perceived fairness of the
outcome (the final distribution) process used to determine
the outcome (the final
“Who got what?”
distribution)
“How was who gets what
decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is
treated with dignity and
respect.
“Was I treated well?”
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 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

Ethical Values and

Behaviors of Leaders

Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation
will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and
• If they perform, they will be rewarded and
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.

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Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation

Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each morning

saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t have to be here,
huh?” Knowing this, which theory gives us insight as
to why Elizabeth may not be motivated at work?

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Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation

Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X

manager, as she/he assumes employees

don’t like work and/or want to be there.

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 Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation

IfIf you
youstudy
studyreally
reallyhard
hardand
and
only
onlygetgetaa BBon
onan
an exam,
exam, but
but
your
your classmate
classmatebarely
barelystudies
studies
at
at all
alland
andgets
getsan
anA,
A, what
what
theory
theorywill
willhelp
helpexplain
explainwhy
why
you
youfeel
feelless
lessmotivated
motivatedto
togo
go
to
toclass?
class?

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Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation
What
Whattheory
theorywould
wouldsay
saythat
thatthis
thisman,
man,who
whoknows
knowshe
he
works
workshard
hardand
andisisperforming
performingwell,
well,will
willbe
bemotivated
motivated
by
byaagym
gymmembership
membershipfor
forbeing
beingaahigh
highperformer?
performer?

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Chapter
Chapter Check-up:
Check-up: Motivation
Motivation

Expectancy
ExpectancyTheory
Theory
Would
Wouldaagymgymmembership
membershipbe beconsidered
consideredaa
motivator
motivatorororhygiene
hygienefactor,
factor,according
accordingto
to
Herzberg?
Herzberg? Discuss
Discusswith
withaaclassmate.
classmate.

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 Putting
Putting ItIt All
All Together
Together

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