MECHANISM OF

LOCOMOTION IN ANIMALS
 EARTHWORM
Structure of the earthworm body:

● The body of an earthworm is comprised of a

fluid-filled hydrostatic skeleton that houses
the internal organs and is surrounded by
muscles.
● The skeleton is made up of several cylindrical
segments, each of which has two sets of
muscle groups: the circular muscles that
surround the circumference, and longitudinal
muscles that extend along the length of the
body
● The cavity filled with fluid is known as
coelum
 The earthworm moves forward by
sending waves of contraction down its
body. Since the volume of a segment is
constant in organisms with hydrostatic
skeletons, the contraction of longitudinal
muscles produces a radial expansion, and
01 Our company the contraction of the radial muscles
produces a longitudinal expansion
02 Data analytics

The friction between the setae of

the earthworm and the surface
prevent it from slipping backward
Inthe first step, the earthworm contracts the
radial muscles in the anterior part of its body to
cause a longitudinal expansion and push the
body forward.

The setae then engage with the surface and

prevent it from slipping backward.

Similar waves of contraction are sent down the

body of the earthworm.

Once the waves have propagated a few

segments down the body, the longitudinal
muscles in the anterior part of the body are
contract and pull the trailing segments forward.

These antagonistic waves of contractions and

relaxation in the longitudinal and axial
directions enable the earthworm to move
 GRASSHOPPER

The flexor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are attached to the internal surface of the exoskeleton

Flexor muscles bend a joint

Extensor muscles straighten it

The rear legs of grasshopper are long and muscular and is adapted for hopping
During the stage of jumping, the flexor muscles are first to contract,
and pull the lower legs towards the body.

The hind legs are folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump

When the extensor muscles contract, the legs jerked backwards,

propelling the grasshopper forward and upward into the air
 FISH

1. Fish faces problem of water resistance

because water is more denser than water.

2. To reduce water resistance while

swimming, fish have:

a) Sleek and streamlined body shape

b) Overlapping scales on their backwards
c) Slimy coatings on their body
3. The vertebral column of the fish is flexible

4. Myotome muscles are W-shaped muscle segments

5. Swim bladder is an air sac in abdomen contains air.(regulate it’s density)

 The Mechanism of Locomotion in a
Fish

1. Myotome muscles carry out

opposite actions in a fish

2. When the muscles on one side

contract,the other side relax
3.The body bends towards the side
that contract

4. Thus, alternating waves of

contraction and relaxation pass
down the myotomes on either side
of the body from the head to the
tail

5. This causes the different part to

bend from side to side, pushing
the water backwards and
sideways, and the fish forward
 There is a tendency for fish to become unstable
in water when they are swimming.

a) yawing (sideway movement)

(b)
(a) b) pitching( vertical plane movement)

c) rolling( transverse plane movement)

These movements are overcome by the fins on

(c) the fish's body

Yawing and rolling are resisted by dorsal and ventral

fins.

The caudal or tail fin provides thrust and control the

direction.

Pitching is resisted by the paired pelvic fins and

pectoral fins which also act as brakes and rudders
 BIRDS
Feathers >
Large surface area.
Waterproof .
Pointed backwards = streamlined
body and prevent being ruffled bt the
wind.
fly by flapping or gliding.

Light body >

Bones are hollow.
Body free of fats.
Single organs ; testis and kidneys
Small head.

Wings >
Aerofoiled ; provide upthrust

Streamlined body >

Reduce air resistance.
Structure of wings

This is the subtitle that makes it

comprehensible
 Flapping

wings raised? wings move down?

● pectoralis minor (supracoracoideus) on
the both wings contract.
● wings are pulled up during upstroke.
● air resistance lower
● only to get back to a starting position of
upstroke.
● pectoralis major on both wings contract
● the wings are pulled down during down
stroke.
● air resistance is produced.
● thrust is transmitted from wing to the
coracoid.
bird flies!
 Gliding
Bernoulli's Principle!
● the wings are spread the act as an aerofoil.
● air flow above the upper surface is faster than at the lower surface.
● means low pressure at the upper surface of the wings + high pressure under the
wings = upward thrust is produced.
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