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Using Entropy
Learning Outcomes
►Explain key concepts related to entropy
and the second law, including entropy
transfer, entropy production, and the
increase in entropy principle.
►Evaluate entropy, evaluate entropy
change between two states, and analyze
isentropic processes, using appropriate
property data.
Learning Outcomes, cont.
►Represent heat transfer in an internally
reversible process as an area on a
temperature-entropy diagram.
►Analyze closed systems and control
volumes, including applying entropy
balances.
►Use isentropic efficiencies for turbines,
nozzles, compressors, and pumps for
second law analysis.
Introducing Entropy Change and the
Entropy Balance
►Mass and energy are familiar extensive
properties of systems. Entropy is another
important extensive property.
►Just as mass and energy are accounted
for by mass and energy balances, entropy
is accounted for by an entropy balance.
►Like mass and energy, entropy can be
transferred across the system boundary.
Introducing Entropy Change and the
Entropy Balance
►The entropy change and entropy balance
concepts are developed using the Clausius
inequality expressed as:
Q
∫ cycle
T b
(Eq. 5.13)
where
cycle = 0 no irreversibilities present within the system Eq.
cycle > 0 irreversibilities present within the system 5.14
cycle < 0 impossible
Defining Entropy Change
►Consider two cycles, each composed
of two internally reversible processes,
process A plus process C and
process B plus process C, as shown
in the figure.
►Applying Eq. 5.13 to these cycles gives,
(Eq. 6.2a)
(Eq. 6.2b)
(Eq. 6.23)
Entropy and Heat Transfer
0
Q
2
S 2 S1 → m(s2 – s1) = (1)
1 T b
<0 = <0 + ≥0
► Since cannot be negative and
► For expansion (b) S is negative, then
► By inspection the integral must be negative and so heat
transfer from the system must occur in expansion (b).
Entropy Rate Balance for Closed Systems
►On a time rate basis, the closed system entropy
rate balance is
(Eq. 6.28)
where
dS
the time rate of change of the entropy of
dt the system
Q j
the time rate of entropy transfer through the
Tj
portion of the boundary whose temperature is Tj
time rate of entropy production due to
irreversibilities within the system
Entropy Rate Balance for Closed Systems
Example: An inventor claims that the device shown
generates electricity at a rate of 100 kJ/s while receiving a
heat transfer of energy at a rate of 250 kJ/s at a temperature
of 500 K, receiving a second heat transfer at a rate of 350
kJ/s at 700 K, and discharging energy by heat transfer at a
rate of 500 kJ/s at a temperature of 1000 K. Each heat
transfer is positive in the direction of the accompanying
arrow. For operation at steady state, evaluate this claim.
Q 1 250 kJ/s
T1 = 500 K
Q 2 350 kJ/s +
–
T2 = 700 K
(Eq. 6.34)
(Eq. 6.36)
(Eq. 6.37)
(Eq. 6.10a)
(Eq. 6.10b)
Calculating Entropy Change
► As an application, consider a change in
phase from saturated liquid to saturated
vapor at constant pressure.
► Since pressure is constant, Eq. 6.10b
reduces to give
dh
ds
T
► Then, because temperature is also constant during the
phase change
(Eq. 6.12)
This relationship is applied in property tables for
tabulating (sg – sf) from known values of (hg – hf).
Calculating Entropy Change
►For example, consider water vapor at 100oC
(373.15 K). From Table A-2, (hg – hf) = 2257.1 kJ/kg.
Thus
(sg – sf) = (2257.1 kJ/kg)/373.15 K = 6.049 kJ/kg∙K
which agrees with the value from Table A-2, as
expected.
►Next, the TdS equations are applied to two additional cases: substances
modeled as incompressible and gases modeled as ideal gases.
Calculating Entropy Change of an
Incompressible Substance
► The incompressible substance model assumes the specific
volume is constant and specific internal energy depends
solely on temperature: u = u(T). Thus, du = c(T)dT, where
c denotes specific heat.
► With these relations, Eq. 6.10a reduces to give
(Eq. 6.13)
Calculating Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
► The ideal gas model assumes pressure, specific volume
and temperature are related by pv = RT. Also, specific
internal energy and specific enthalpy each depend solely
on temperature: u = u(T), h = h(T), giving du = cvdT and
dh = cpdT, respectively.
► Using these relations and integrating, the TdS equations
give, respectively
► For several gases modeled as ideal gases, including air, CO 2, CO, O2, N2, and
water vapor, the evaluation of entropy change can be reduced to a convenient
tabular approach using the variable so defined by
(Eq. 6.19)
(Eq. 6.20b)
► For air, Tables A-22 and A-22E provide so in units of
kJ/kg∙K and Btu/lb∙oR, respectively. For the other gases
o
mentioned, Tables A-23 and A-23E provide s in units of
kJ/kmol∙K and Btu/lbmol∙oR, respectively.
Calculating Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
Example: Determine the change in specific entropy, in
kJ/kg∙K, of air as an ideal gas undergoing a process from
T1 = 300 K, p1 = 1 bar to T2 = 1420 K, p2 = 5 bar.
► From Table A-22, we get so1 = 1.70203 and so2 = 3.37901, each in kJ/kg∙K.
Substituting into Eq. 6.20a
kJ 8.314 kJ 5 bar kJ
s2 s1 (3.37901 1.70203)
1 bar
ln 1. 215
kg K 28 .97 kg K kg K
Id e al Gas Pro pe rtie s o f Air
T(K), h an d u(kJ/ kg ), s o (kJ/ kg ∙K)
Table A-22 wh e n s = 0 wh e n s = 0
T h u so pr vr T h u so pr vr
250 2 5 0 .0 5 1 7 8 .2 8 1 .5 1 9 1 7 0 .7 3 2 9 979. 1400 1 5 1 5 .4 2 1 1 1 3 .5 2 3 .3 6 2 0 0 4 5 0 .5 8 .9 1 9
260 2 6 0 .0 9 1 8 5 .4 5 1 .5 5 8 4 8 0 .8 4 0 5 8 8 7 .8 1420 1 5 3 9 .4 4 1 1 3 1 .7 7 3 .3 7 9 0 1 4 7 8 .0 8 .5 2 6
270 2 7 0 .1 1 1 9 2 .6 0 1 .5 9 6 3 4 0 .9 5 9 0 8 0 8 .0 1440 1 5 6 3 .5 1 1 1 5 0 .1 3 3 .3 9 5 8 6 5 0 6 .9 8 .1 5 3
280 2 8 0 .1 3 1 9 9 .7 5 1 .6 3 2 7 9 1 .0 8 8 9 7 3 8 .0 1460 1 5 8 7 .6 3 1 1 6 8 .4 9 3 .4 1 2 4 7 5 3 7 .1 7 .8 0 1
285 2 8 5 .1 4 2 0 3 .3 3 1 .6 5 0 5 5 1 .1 5 8 4 7 0 6 .1 1480 1 6 1 1 .7 9 1 1 8 6 .9 5 3 .4 2 8 9 2 5 6 8 .8 7 .4 6 8
290 2 9 0 .1 6 2 0 6 .9 1 1 .6 6 8 0 2 1 .2 3 1 1 6 7 6 .1 1500 1 6 3 5 .9 7 1 2 0 5 .4 1 3 .4 4 5 1 6 6 0 1 .9 7 .1 5 2
295 2 9 5 .1 7 2 1 0 .4 9 1 .6 8 5 1 5 1 .3 0 6 8 6 4 7 .9 1520 1 6 6 0 .2 3 1 2 2 3 .8 7 3 .4 6 1 2 0 6 3 6 .5 6 .8 5 4
300 3 0 0 .1 9 2 1 4 .0 7 1 .7 0 2 0 3 1 .3 8 6 0 6 2 1 .2 1540 1 6 8 4 .5 1 1 2 4 2 .4 3 3 .4 7 7 1 2 6 7 2 .8 6 .5 6 9
305 3 0 5 .2 2 2 1 7 .6 7 1 .7 1 8 6 5 1 .4 6 8 6 5 9 6 .0 1560 1 7 0 8 .8 2 1 2 6 0 .9 9 3 .4 9 2 7 6 7 1 0 .5 6 .3 0 1
310 3 1 0 .2 4 2 2 1 .2 5 1 .7 3 4 9 8 1 .5 5 4 6 5 7 2 .3 1580 1 7 3 3 .1 7 1 2 7 9 .6 5 3 .5 0 8 2 9 7 5 0 .0 6 .0 4 6
Calculating Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
p2 pr (T2 )
(s1 = s2, air only) (Eq. 6.41)
p1 pr (T1 )
v 2 v r (T2 )
(s1 = s2, air only) (Eq. 6.42)
v1 v r (T1 )
(Eq. 6.46)
Isentropic Turbine Efficiency
Example: Water vapor enters a
turbine at p1 = 5 bar, T1 = 320oC and 1 2
exits at p2 = 1 bar. The work developed
is measured as 271 kJ per kg of water
vapor flowing. Applying Eq. 6.46,
determine the isentropic turbine
efficiency.
► From Table A-4, h1 = 3105.6 kJ/kg, s1 = 7.5308 kJ/kg. With s2s = s1, interpolation in Table
A-4 at a pressure of 1 bar gives h2s = 2743.0 kJ/kg. Substituting values into Eq. 6.46
W cv / m 271 kJ/kg
t 0.75 (75%)
h1 h2s 3105.6 2743.0 kJ/kg
Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies
(Eq. 6.48)
(Eq. 6.49)
where the subscript “int rev” signals that the expression applies
only in the absence of internal irreversibilities.
► As shown by the figure, when the states visited by
a unit mass passing from inlet to exit without
internal irreversibilities are described by a curve on
a T-s diagram, the heat transfer per unit of mass
flowing is represented by the area under the curve.
Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible
Steady-State Flow Processes
► Neglecting kinetic and potential energy effects, an energy
rate balance for the control volume reduces to
W cv Q cv V12 V22
int m int h1 h2
g z1 z 2
m 2
rev rev
(Eq. 6.51b)
(Eq. 6.51c)