Research Methods

Introduction
Tibebe Beshah (PhD)

1
Topics
 Meaning (conceptualization) of research
 Characteristics of a research
 Purpose /objectives of research
 Motivation and significance of research
 Types of research
 Theory and hypothesis in research
 Ethical issues in research

2
Meaning (conceptualization) of Research

 One of the primary goals of academic training is to

learn how to learn, i.e., to learn how to
continuously absorb new knowledge

 The process of exploring the unknown, studying and

learning new things, building new knowledge about
things that no one has understood before - that is
what we think of as performing research

3
What is Research and what is not?

 Formally: advance state of art

 Informally: tell people something

new

4
Cont…

 Non-research
 My advisor gave me this mpeg decoding
algorithm
I learned about mpeg decoding
I implemented it
 And it worked

 Mind the difference

 Project vs thesis (research)
5
Cont…
 Research
 I took two existing mpeg decoders
 I took some sample movies
 I studied the decoders qualitatively
 I measured them quantitatively
 I concluded why one is better
 Why research:
 analysis + comparison = something new

6
Cont…
 Research
 My advisor gave me this mpeg decoding
algorithm
 I implemented it
 I measured it
 I analyzed it and found a bottleneck
 I instrumented the code to prove the
hypothesis
 I recommend and conclude…

7
Cont…
 Research
 I was given an mpeg decoding
implementation
 I identified its bottleneck as above
 I proposed an improvement
 I implemented the improvement
 I measured it again to prove/disprove
I’m right
 I generalize and conclude…

8
Lots of Possibilities
 For example, Building a web site
 How do you distinguish yourself from an undergraduate writing
a bunch of code ?
 A must: make it novel. Something new or better than previous
such websites
 How? Make it:
 general: can be created and configured from parameters
and scripts
 automatically testable and demo-able
 a comparison between competing implementation
technologies (different languages, databases, OS
environments)
 a software engineering exercise in portability, robustness,
performance, interface design, …
 Use the stuff you learn in your IT/CS/IS classes !

9
 Thus
 Research is ;
 advance state of art and tell people something new
 Not necessarily that much more work
 Just need to “go the extra mile”:
explore, analyze, experiment, simulate, generalize…
 OK to get a negative result: “My idea didn’t
work, and here’s why…”

 0911407808

10
Cont…
 Research =
 Analysis + Synthesis + Hypothesis

 Combination of work done before and

new insights

 Literature survey + understanding +

innovation

11
Cont…
 Re-search
 Research is an organized and systematic way of finding
answers to questions
 Is an academic activity of
 Search for knowledge
 Scientific investigation
 “…the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we are
concerned or interested.”1

1. Leedy P. D. and Ormrod J. E., Practical Research: Planning and Design, 7th Edition. 2001.

12
Science , research and scientific methods

 Research is science and follows scientific methods

 Science is an extremely complex phenomenon, and
difficult if not entirely impossible to define in a simple
way.
 Science is the systematic study of the properties of the
physical world, by means of repeatable experiments and
measurements, and the development of universal
theories that are capable of describing and predicting
observations.
 Statements in science must be precise and meaningful,
such that other people can test them
13
Cont…
 To do science is to search for repeated patterns, not
simply to accumulate facts.

Robert H. MacArthur, Geographical Ecology

 Religion is a culture of faith; science is a culture of doubt.

Richard Feynman

14
Cont…
 If there is anything that can characterize science then
it must be its method

 The scientific method might be seen as the logical

scheme used by scientists searching for answers to the
questions posed within science, as well to formulate
theories as to assure the means for producing them
(instruments, tools, algorithms)

15
The Scientific Method

16
 Scientific Method (in Computing)

 Hunch (instinct, sixth sense) - Hypothesis

 Data collection
 Analysis/Sequence of experiments/simulations
 Randomization/Repetition
 Change one parameter/experiment
 Prove/Disprove Hypothesis /propositions
 Document for others to reproduce results

Taken from “How to have a bad carreer in research/academia” by David Patterson, Feb 2002.
Simplified research process
to illustrate scientific method

18
Scientific Research
 Employs systematic observation and rational
process to create new knowledge

 Based on logical relationship not just a belief

 Involves an explanation of the methods used to

collect and analyze the data; explanation to why
the results are meaningful”

 Critical thinking is highly used

19
Critical Thinking in research : Logical
Argument
 Critical thinking helps to create a logical relationships and
arguments
“Reserve your right to think, for even to think wrongly is better
than not to think at all” Hypatia, natural philosopher and mathematician
 An argument is a statement logically inferred from premises.
 Neither an opinion nor a belief can qualify as an argument.
 Typically, arguments are understood as either being deductive
or inductive.
 As long as the structure corresponds to the given forms, an
argument will attain validity.
 A valid argument is an argument that is built according to the
demonstrated rules of construction.
20
Cont…
 Deduction
 Typically, a deductive argument is :
 constructed according to valid rules of inference
 the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises
 It is mainly from general to specific
 Read about four of the more common models for
constructing arguments:
 Modus Ponens
 Modus Tollens
 Disjunctive Syllogism
 Hypothetical Syllogism
 In a simplified scheme, deductive inferences can be
said to move from general statements to particular
conclusions 21
Cont…
 Empirical Induction
 Inductive inferences move from particular
assertions to general conclusions.
 Here is the generic form of an inductive argument:
Every A we have observed is a B.
Therefore, every A is a B.
 Many of scientific hypotheses are formulated via
induction. Consider the following:
 Every instance of water (at sea level) we have
observed has boiled at 100° Celsius.
 Therefore, all water (at sea level) boils at 100°
Celsius.
22
Cont…
 The “scientific method” attempts to minimize the
influence of the researchers' bias on the outcome of
an experiment/investigation.
 The researcher may have a preference for one outcome or
another, and it is important that this preference not bias
the results or their interpretation.
 Sometimes "common sense" and "logic" tempt us into
believing that no test is needed.
 Another common mistake is to ignore or rule out data
which do not support the hypothesis.

23
Other traits of a Scientific
Research Project

 Interesting/important problem
 Non-trivial challenge(s)
 Exploration of new technology
 Can be finished in allotted time (one
semester/year)
 Effective communication (talks, reports)

24
Research and human knowledge

25
Research often makes use of various
Sources of Knowledge

• INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea )

• AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing professional

literature)

• LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to

conclusions)

• EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead to

these findings)

26
Research

Mini-Seminar -SIS-AAU 27
Research Characteristics
1. Originates with a question or problem.
2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.
4. Often divides main problem into subproblems.
5. Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Requires collection and interpretation of data.
8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical or, more exactly,
helical
(1) Originates with a question or problem

 Originates with a question in the mind of the researcher.

 The world is filled with unanswered questions,
unresolved problems.
 Things that cause us to wonder, to speculate, to ask
questions.
 Igniting a chain reaction that terminates in the research
process.
 Inquisitive mind is the beginning of research.
Do not know, do not understand.
Why? What’s the cause of that? What does it all mean?

29
(2) Requires clear articulation of a goal
 Cannot proceed without a clear articulation of a goal.
 A clear, unambiguous statement of the problem.
 An exercise in intellectual honesty.
 Must set forth in a grammatically complete sentence
exactly what the ultimate goal of the research
 Basic for the success.
 Without it, research is on shaky ground.

30
(3) Requires a specific plan for proceeding

 Requires a specific plan of procedure/method

 Not an excursion into happy expectation, a
carefully planned attack, search-and-discover
mission explicitly planned.
 Logically designed.

 Any existent data that address themselves will

be used
 Procrastination has no place in the agenda

31
(4) Principal research problem usually is
made of many subproblems
 In many cases it has sub problems/dividing it into
more manageable subareas.
 Whole is composed of the sum of its parts.
 We break down much more frequently than we realize.
 To proceed logically, should closely inspect the
principal problem, soon cause the appropriate,
necessary subproblems to float naturally.

 Many researchers take neither the time nor the trouble

to isolate the lesser problems, their research projects
become cumbersome and unwieldy.

32
(5) Guided by specific questions or hypothesis
 Seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses
based upon logical suppositions or RQ
 Each of the subproblems is then viewed through a
construct called a hypothesis.
 Logical supposition, reasonable guess, an educated conjecture.
 Direct your thinking to the possible source of facts that will aid
in resolving the research problem.
 They are constant, recurring features of everyday life.
 Natural working of the human mind.
 After the hypotheses, come facts.
 Greatest discoveries begun as hypotheses.
 Over time, as particular hypotheses are supported by a growing
body of data, they evolve into theories.
 A theory is an organised and matured body of concepts and
principles intended to explain a particular phenomenon.
33
(6) Accepts critical assumptions
 Assumptions are equivalent to axioms in geometry
 Assumptions as bedrock upon which the research rest
 Essential that others know
 Vitally important in judging the quality of the
research
 Distinction between a hypothesis and an assumption.
 Assumption is a condition that is taken for granted, without
which the research situation would be impossible.
 Assumptions are self-evident conditions.
 For the beginning researcher, it is better to be over-explicit
than to take too much for granted
34
(7) Requires collection and interpretation of
data
 Deals with facts and their meaning.
 Next step is to collect whatever facts seem
appropriate and to organize them in meaningful ways
so that they can be interpreted.
 Collection of data, not necessarily appropriate for
interpretation.
 Only facts, events, happenings, observations-
nothing more.
 These are potentially meaningful.
 The significance of the data depends upon the way in
which the human brain extracts meaning from those
data.

35
Cont…
 Unprocessed, are worthless in research.
 Become a travesty (something that can be joked
about).
 Data demands interpretation.
 No rule, no formula, that will lead the researcher
unerringly (accurately) to the correct interpretation.
 Subjective: entirely upon the logical mind, inductive
reasoning skill, objectivity of the researcher.
 Different minds frequently see different meanings in the
same set of facts.
 An axiom of interpretation that all researchers must
recognize.

36
(8) Research is, by its nature,
cyclical or, more exactly, helical
 Is circular
 The research process follows a cycle and begins simply and
follows logical, developmental steps.
1. A questioning mind observes a particular situation and
asks, Why? What caused that? How come? (Subjective
origin of research.)
2. One question becomes formally stated as a problem.
(Overt beginning of research.)
3. The problem is divided into several simpler, more
specific subproblems.
4. Preliminary data are gathered that appear to bear on
the problem.
5. The data seem to point to a tentative solution of the
problem. A guess is made; a hypothesis or guiding
question is formed.

37
Cont…

6. Data are collected, processed, and interpreted.

7. A discovery is made; a conclusion is reached.
8. Thetentative hypothesis is either supported by
the data or is not supported; the question is
either answered (partially or completely) or not
answered.
9. The cycle is complete.

This is the format of all research.

38
Cont…
 Different academic disciplines merely use different
routes to arrive at the same destination.

 Circle is, however, deceptive.

 Accurately helix, or spiral.
 One comes across additional problems.
 Research begets research.
 Dynamic quality.
 NOT One-time act (static), self-contained, an end in
itself.
 Genuine research creates more problems than it
resolves.
39
What is the purpose/objectives of research?

40
Major Purposes of Research

 A research can be undertaken for two different

purposes:

 To solve a currently existing problem (applied

research)

 To contribute to the general body of knowledge in

a particular area of interest (basic/fundamental
research)

41
Research objectives may fall into
one of the following

 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve

new insights into it (known as exploratory or formulated
research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(known as diagnostic research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (known as hypothesis-testing research
studies).
 To construct/show a new way of doing things

42
What motivates a research?

43
What makes people to do
research
 Desire to solve challenges in solving the unsolved
problems
 Desire to get a research degree and its benefits
 Desire to formulate appropriate policies
 Desire to contribute to the existing stock of knowledge
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Desire to be of service to the society
 Curiosity about new things
 Direction from government
 ……

44
Benefit/significance of
Research
 Research is the fountain of knowledge and an important source
for providing guidelines for solving different business,
governmental and social problems. Therefore,
 (a) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalizations of new theories;
 (b) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet
for new ideas and insights;
 (c) To those students who are to write a thesis, it is a way to
attain a high position in the social structure;
 (d) To professionals in research methodology, it is a source of
livelihood;
 (e) To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work.

45
Types of Research

46
Based on Purpose
 (i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 -Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries where the researcher has no control over the
variables so he can only report what has happened.

 -Analytical research is using of facts already

available/or collected then analyze these to make a
critical evaluation.
 In this type , researcher has a control over the variables
to manipulate in some way and see the impact.
 (your research is expected to be of more analytical)
47
Cont..
 (ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:
 -Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
 Developing a SW that convert word files into database format
 Innovating new way in doing payroll processing by a computer
 Developinga program that copy's files from a computer to a
mobile phone
(Given the filed that we are in, your research is expected to be
more of applied)
 -Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with the formulation of a theory

48
Based on Approach and method
 (iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
amount/quantity.
 Qualitative research is concerned with quality or kind.
 (your research can follow both or either )
 (iv) Conceptual vs. Experimental (or Empirical):
 Conceptual research is used by philosophers to develop
new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical research is data-based research which can be
verified by observation or experiment.
 (as a masters and phd work, your research is expected to
be more of empirical)

49
Cont…
 (V) Behavioral Vs Design research (IT related)
 Design Science
 Studies artificial objects or phenomena designed
to meet certain goals
 (most likely your work will fall under this
category)
 Behavioral
 Studies the decision processes and
communication strategies within and between
organisms in a social system (IT users vs IT
artifacts)

50
Cont…
 (v) Some Other Types of Research:

 -Based on Time => one-time research or

longitudinal research.
 -Based on the environment=> field-setting research
or laboratory research or simulation research.
 -Based on orientation=> conclusion-oriented and
decision-oriented

51
Expected Problems Encountered by
Researchers
 1. The lack of a scientific training in research methodology;
 2. Insufficient interaction between concerned bodies;
 3. Research studies overlapping one another;
 4. Inexistence of code of conduct for researchers;
 5. the difficulty of adequate and timely ICT know-how;
 6. Unsatisfactory Library services and functioning;
 7. difficulty of timely availability of published data;
 8. Ethical concerns (both Animal & Human)
 9. Approval by authorities
 10. Lack of cooperation etc....

52
Theory and hypothesis in research
 Theory
 An abstraction of realities that serve as a guide for
future practice
 You may think theory as an absolute truth, such as the
theory of gravity or the theory of relativity
Actually a changing phenomenon, especially in the
soft or social sciences. 
 Theories are developed based on what is observed or
experienced, often times in the real world. 
 Changed as we gather new facts and observe new
relationship

53
Cont…
 In Quantitative studies -Kerlinger’s (1979) -theory is “a set of
interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that
presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations
among variables, with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena”
 Gregor (2006) theory is a set of statements of relationships among
constructs that aims to describe, explain, enhance understanding,
and, in some cases, allow predictions about the future

 Qualitative inquirers use different terms for theories, such as

patterns, theoretical lens, or naturalistic generalizations, to
describe the broader explanations used or developed in their studies

 In design science researches - Design Theory (Gregor and Jones

2007) – prescriptions for design and action 54
Cont’d
 Dubin (1978) notes theory contains three main elements:
 A set of well-defined concepts (or units);
 Constructs and/variables
 Laws of interaction (or interrelationships between the units);
 Hypothesis and /or propositions
A boundary within which the theory holds.
 Example
 Technology adoption model, Theory of planned behavior, Design
theory, Communication theory , Human Computer Interaction
theory (HCI), IS success model etc

Researchers state their theories in research proposals in

several ways, such as a series of hypotheses, if-then logic
statements, or visual models.
55
Constructs and Variables in theories

 Usually we use constructs and/variables to define theories

 Constructs are abstract concepts which cannot be
measurable
 It is similar to classes in object oriented programming
 Examples: motivation, SW quality, security, person

 Variables are things which we can observe and measure it.

 Example for person construct, variables are height, age, color
 Sometime these words may have interchangeable role depending the
research scope

56
Placement of theories
 In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and
places it toward the beginning of the proposed study.

 A general guide is to introduce the theory early in a plan

or study: in the introduction, in the literature review
section, immediately after hypotheses or research
questions (as a rationale for the connections among the
variables), or in a separate section of the study.
 Each placement has its advantages and disadvantages.

57
Cont…
 In qualitative and design researches: two perspectives
regarding theory usage
 First as a guide like quantitative but in a form of
distributed statements from the literature to get
perspectives
 Second , distinct from this theoretical orientation are
qualitative studies in which theory (or some other
broad explanation) becomes the end point.
 Itis an inductive process of building from the data to
broad themes to a generalized model or theory

58
Theory vs Conceptual Framework
 CF is the researchers understanding of the Research
Problem through theory.
Conceptual framework = Mental models

 Jay Wright Forrester defined general mental models as:

"The image of the world around us, which we carry in our

head, is just a model. Nobody in his head imagines all the
world, government or country. He has only selected
concepts, and relationships between them, and uses those
to represent the real system.“
59
Cont…
 CF contains variables and their relationship to be
investigated in the research.
 It serve as a guide for the research process
 It is build from existing theory or prior experience of the
researcher
 It is accepted or modified after the collected empirical
data is analyzed and interpreted
 simplify reality by selecting certain phenomena/variables
and suggesting certain relationships between them;

60
Proposition
 Predictions about the world are made using propositions, that is,
conclusions that may be deduced logically from the theory.
 It is a relationship between two or more constructs
 It guides the research process in data collection and data analysis
 Used in qualitative research methods especially in case study research
 Examples
 Proposition #1 --- ERP implementation can be successful only if there
is a strong and committed leadership guiding the initiative” (Sarker
and Lee 2000, p416)
 “Proposition #2 ----ERP implementation can be successful only if
there is open and honest communication among the stakeholders”
(Sarker and Lee 2000, p416)
 “Proposition #3 --- ERP implementation can be successful only if the
implementation team is empowered and balanced” (Sarker and Lee
2000
61
Hypothesis
 A hypothesis is an empirically testable statement that is generated
from a proposition
 Hypothesis is a tentative solution forwarded by the researcher based
on previous theory or experience
 It is expressed in terms that support collection and analysis of
empirical data
 Terms used in the hypothesis are “things observable” (Dubin 1978)
 One proposition may generate many hypotheses
 Example
1. Graphical software interface increases SW learnability.
2. Cloud service reduces IT operation costs
3. Component based SW development increases SW project success

62
Ethical issues in research
 Ethical concerns
 Moral concerns:
 honesty and integrity
 Neutrality

 Avoiding data fabrication

 Legal implications:
 confidentiality and privacy
 Protecting human subjects
 Plagiarism

63
Ethical issues cont…Issue of Plagiarism
 Intentional VS unintentional
 The effect is the same
 The most serious one
 Presenting ones idea /research as if it is yours
 Others
 Use/Copy sentences/ideas of others as they are in your work
 Solution
 Acknowledging
 Either paraphrase or put it in quotation and cite.
 Through proper citation (at sentence level, paragraph
level etc…
 Indicate in any appropriate way that it is not yours.
64
Review questions
 What are the two basic purposes of research?
 Mention at least 5 characteristics of research?
 How serious is plagiarism? Explain.
 On which type of research you are interested? Why?
 Define research?
 How are research, scientific methods, and arguments related?
 Mention the four sources of knowledge while conducting research?
 Explain the relationship between theory and conceptual framework?
 Which one is specific- proposition or hypothesis?

65
Next on research process

66