PSYCHOBIOLOGY OF ALTERED

STATES OF AWARENESS
Stage 2 Psychology
Information quoted and adapted from ‘Psychology for South Australia Stage 2’
1st edition. Spencer & Hartstone. 2007. John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd
ALTERED STATES
Our state of awareness is constantly changing and it
affects our ability to function in different situations.

Affected by how much sleep we get, and our level of

physiological and psychological stress.

This topic focuses on the biological level of

explanation – biological and chemical changes within
our brains and bodies that influence our level of sleep
and stress.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Stage 2 Psychology
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Circadian rhythm: a behavioural or physiological cycle
that takes place over a 24 hour period.

Examples include: body temperature, blood pressure,

growth hormone secretion, pain tolerance and blood sugar
levels.

Body temp: generally peaks in the afternoon and at lowest

in early morning – drop in body temperature in the evening
coincides with a drop in alertness.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Sleep/wake cycle
Humans level of alertness at lowest in early hours of
the morning and peak in the late afternoon.

However does depend on factors such as sleep debt,

sunlight, shift work and interest level in tasks called
zeitgebers.

Circadian rhythms are controlled by areas in the brain.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
The most obvious zeitgeber is daylight. When daylight
hits your eyes, cells in the retinas signal your brain.

Other zeitgebers are sleep, social contact and even

regular meal times.

They all send "timekeeping" clues to your brain,

helping keep your circadian rhythms running
according to schedule.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
The sleep/wake cycle is controlled by the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is a small
cluster of nerve cells located in the hypothalamus in
the brain.

SCN is a ‘biological clock’ that keeps track of time of

day.

Light is the main external cue that syncs this clock.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
There are receptors in the back of the retinas of our
eyes that detect the level of light.

Converted into an electrical impulse that travels from

the retina to the SCN, which responds to changes in
light.

SCN sends messages to brain and body that help them

adapt to whether it is day or night.
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
SCN controls the sleep/wake cycle by sending messages to
the pineal gland in the brain which adjust melatonin levels.

Melatonin: hormone that tells the body whether it should

be awake or asleep.

Melatonin levels are at their highest at night and at their

lowest during the day.

Light inhibits the secretion of melatonin.

JET LAG
Stage 2 Psychology
JET LAG
The suprachaismatic nucleus recognises the time of
day to be different from what external cues tell us. Due
to travelling through several time zones.

Circadian related problem and results in reduced

quality of sleep.

On average, it takes one day of adjustment for every

hour of time zone change i.e. 5 hour time difference =
5 days for circadian rhythm to adjust.
JET LAG
Symptoms of jet lag:
Daytime sleepiness
Increase fatigue
Loss of concentration
Increased irritability

Generally easier to travel westward (lengthens the day)

than eastward (shortens the day).
JET LAG
Body adjusts more easily if bedtime is delayed than if
brought forward.

Sports people need to manage their jet lag in order to

increase/maintain their performance.

Especially the case for Olympic athletes who travel

across several time zones and then need to compete a
short time after arriving at destination.
JET LAG
Strategies to minimise effects of jet lag:
Live on destination time before departing
Strategize when to sleep on journey (sleep according to
destination night time)
Sync circadian rhythm of eating to destination time
Delay sleep if arriving in the daytime
SLEEP STAGES
Stage 2 Psychology
SLEEP STAGES
Sleep is made up of 5 stages, each with different characteristics.

The first four stages are generalised as non-REM sleep, and the
fifth stage is REM sleep.

Humans have around 4-6 sleep cycles each night, and each cycle
last around 90-110 minutes.

The first sleep cycle, humans only get approximately 10 minutes

of REM sleep. This then increases to 30-60 minutes by the last
cycle.
SLEEP STAGES
Sleep is objectively measured using various methods:

Electroencephalograph (EEG) which measures brain

wave patterns during sleep.

Electrooculogram (EOG) which measures eye

movement during sleep.

Electromyogram (EMG) which measures the activity

of muscles during sleep.
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH (EEG)
Electroencephalograph
(EEG) which measures
brain wave patterns
during sleep.

Can tell what stage of

sleep, how much a person
gets etc.
ELECTROOCULARGRAM (EOG)
Electrooculogram
(EOG) which
measures eye
movement during
sleep.

Can tell is someone

is in NREM or REM
by their eye
movements.
ELECTROMYOGRAM (EMG)
Electromyogram
(EMG) which
measures the
activity of muscles
during sleep.

Can tell which stage

of sleep a person is in
by measuring their
muscle movement.
STAGE 1
Described as ‘relaxed wakefulness’
Brain
Alpha and Theta brain waves present on EEG
Reduced brain activity
Irregular, fast and slow amplitude EEG
Body
Rolling eye movements
Slowed breathing and heart rate
Reduced muscle activity
Hypnogic jerks

Last approximately 10 minutes

STAGE 2
Brain
Presence of sleep spindles and K-complexes

Body
Medium amplitude in muscle movement
No eye movement
Temperature, heart rate, breathing and blood pressure
continue to drop

Last about 20 minutes

STAGE 3 - SWS
Brain
Slow waves appear called Delta waves
Travel to stage 4 (deepest stage)
Delta waves make up 20 – 50% of brainwave activity

Body
Medium to low amplitude in muscle tension
No eye movement
Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure and temperature
continue to drop

Lasts about 15 minutes

STAGE 4 - SWS
Deepest stage of sleep
Brain
Delta waves account for more than 50% of brain wave activity

Body
Little to no muscle movement
No eye movement
Breathing at its slowest and deepest
Hard to wake someone from this stage > if awoken person is confused and
disorientated

Amount of SWS > how restored a person feels

Stage 3 and 4 combined lasts about 30 mins

STAGE 5 - REM
Sleep ‘lightens’ and moves back through stages 4-3-2 to a unique stage (REM)
‘Rapid eye movement’ > eyes moving around

Brain
People report ‘dreaming’
EEG in REM similar to an awake person
Beta and some alpha waves present

Body
Pulse, breathing, blood pressure quicken
Eyes move around very quickly

Deepest sleep in first cycle > dream sleep in last cycle

STAGE OF SLEEP - EEG
SLEEP DEBT
Accumulation of the difference between the amount of sleep that
a person needs to function at an optimal level and the amount
they actually have.

E.g. if a person needs 8 hours each night but only gets 7, they
have a sleep debt of 1 hour.

Our desire to sleep during the day increases the more sleep debt
we have.

However sleep debt does not continue to build up over a lifetime.

SLEEP DEPRIVATION
When a person does not get the required amount of
sleep to function at the optimal level.

Has a negative effect on our bodies by reducing the

effectiveness of our immune system.

Common symptoms include: increased daytime

sleepiness, irritability, hand tremors, slower reaction
time, poorer memory and microsleeps.
SLEEP DISORDERS
Stage 2 Psychology
SLEEP DISORDERS
Much more common than people think.

Approximatley 70 clinically diagnosable sleep

disorders.

Usually leave sufferer with increased daytime

sleepiness, hence, reduced daytime functioning.

Three common sleep disorders are insomnia, sleep

apnoea and narcolepsy.
INSOMNIA
 Sleep disorder which causes a reduction in quality and amount of
sleep, making sufferers unable to function at their optimal level.

 Symptoms include:
 Daytime fatigue
 Impaired concentration

 Some people most commonly suffer from insomnia that involves not
being able to fall asleep at night, and others have difficulty staying
asleep throughout the night. There are some who wake up very early in
the morning and cant go back to sleep.

 Some insomnia sufferers have a combination of the above.

INSOMNIA
Number of different factors that can cause insomnia:
Psychological factors: anxiety > heightens
physiological arousal therefore difficult to go to sleep.

Lifestyle factors: drinking too much caffeine or

smoking cigarettes (both are stimulants), working night
shift.

Environmental factors: presence of too much noise or

light.
SLEEP TREATMENTS
FOR INSOMNIA
Stage 2 Psychology
SLEEP TREATMENTS FOR INSOMNIA
Stimulus control therapy
Therapy used to treat insomnia. Based on the
assumption that where a person sleeps has become
associated with the process of sleeping.

Many sufferers of insomnia associate their bed with being

awake instead of sleep – could be due to past stress,
zeitgebers etc.

Sufferers are given rules to follow that encourage only sleep-

promoting behaviours.
SLEEP TREATMENTS FOR INSOMNIA
Stimulus control therapy (cont.)
1. Lie down in bed to go to sleep only when you feel sleepy.
2. Don’t use bed to do things such as read, watch TV, eat or
worry.
3. If you lie down in bed but cant sleep, get up and go to
another room. Repeat as many times as needed.
4. Get up at the same time each morning no matter how
much sleep you got the night before.
5. Do not nap during the day.
SLEEP TREATMENTS FOR INSOMNIA
Sleep restriction therapy
Based on the assumption that by limiting the amount of
time spent in bed, more efficient sleep will follow.

Indicates that spending a lot of time in bed can increase the

development of insomnia.

By limiting the amount of time someone can be in bed then

leads to increased sleep debt. This sleep debt will make the
person more tired, so they will fall asleep more easily the
next night.
SLEEP TREATMENTS FOR INSOMNIA
Sleep restriction therapy (cont.)
 Follows this process:

1. Person records estimated amount of sleep time each night in a sleep diary
(approximately 2 weeks).
2. Diary is used to work out their average number of hours sleep per night.
3. Person is allowed to stay in bed for the average number of hours plus 15
minutes, but never les than 4 and a half hours.
4. Get up at the same time each day.
5. No naps allowed during the day.
6. Once a person sleeps for 75% of the time that they are allowed to spend in
bed for 5 days, they are allowed to go to bed 15 minutes earlier.
7. Repeat procedure until the person can sleep for 8 hours or amount of time
desired.
SLEEP APNOEA
Stage 2 Psychology
SLEEP APNOEA
Sleep disorder in which a person stops breathing periodically
for a few moments whilst they are asleep.

Can occur hundreds of times per night.

Mild form results in snoring

Severe form results in cessation of breathing
Defense mechanism > body to arouse > restore breathing

Most common in overweight men around 40 years old, however can

affect other people, such as those who have an underdeveloped or
receding jaw including children) and smokers.
STRATEGIES FOR SLEEP APNOEA
Lifestyle strategies:
Not smoking (damages throat and tongue)
Losing weight
Avoiding depressive chemicals i.e. alcohol and drowsy
medications
TREATMENTS FOR SLEEP APNOEA
Treatments
Oral mouthguards to keep
airways open.
CPAP (continuous positive
airway pressure) machine
– oxygen mask worn
during sleep - most
common therapy used.
In extreme cases, surgery
to correct the jaw
placement of upper and/or
lower jaw.
NARCOLEPSY
Stage 2 Psychology
NARCOLEPSY
 Sleep disorder in which people experience irresistible and unpredictable
daytime attacks of sleepiness, lasting 5 – 30 minutes.

 Sufferers can also experience a loss in muscle tension which adds to sleepiness
called cataplexy.

 Attacks most frequently occur when sufferer is in a heightened state of arousal

such as laughing or angry > goes straight into REM sleep

 Very dangerous as these attacks can occur at work or whilst driving.

 Cause not known however evidence suggests it may be genetic.

 Problem is in hypothalamus of brain.

PARASOMNIAS
Stage 2 Psychology
PARASOMNIAS
Include a range of sleep ‘phenomena's’ including sleep
walking, sleep talking, nightmares and night terrors.

Very common in children due to more hours of sleep

Night terrors and sleepwalking occur during SWS

Sleep talking and nightmares occur during REM

Typically reduce with age however can reoccur following

periods of stress
SLEEP AND AGE
Stage 2 Psychology
SLEEP AND AGE
As we get older, the amount of time we spend in delta
sleep decreases dramatically.

Elderly people still need plenty of sleep, however the

lighter stages make up the majority of their sleep cycle,
with little to no SWS or REM sleep.
SLEEP AND AGE
Age Group Hours of SWS sleep REM sleep Sleep-wake
sleep per cycle
24 hours

Newborns 16 moderate majority 4 hours

Toddlers 13 increases declines Nap and

sleep

Adolescents 9-10 20% 25% 9-10 hours

Adults 6-8 20% 20% 6-8 hours

Elderly 6-8 Little to Little to 2-3 hours

none none
SLEEP HYGIENE
Stage 2 Psychology
SLEEP HYGIENE
Things in your behavioural control that can help you
to have optimal sleep quality and quantity.
 These include:
 Stick to a consistent wake up and bedtime every day of the week.
 Have a quiet and comfortable sleep environment (fans, water etc.
can help to block out other sounds).
 Don’t consume caffeine within four hours of bed time.
 If you are having trouble sleeping at night, don’t nap during the day.
 Resolve problems from the day – make a ‘worry’ list to help you feel
closure.
 Establish a bedtime routine such as TV off at 9:00pm, shower, read
a book, lights off at 10:00pm.
FATIGUE
Stage 2 Psychology
FATIGUE AND ITS AFFECTS
Fatigue: sleepiness which causes someone to have more
chance of falling asleep and have impaired performance on
a task.

Signs of fatigue:
 Yawning
 Sore and heavy eyes
 Blurred vision
 Daydreaming
 Many more (page 153 box 6.7)
FATIGUE AND ITS AFFECTS
Fatigue is a major factor in the increase in the road
toll, but how do we measure/observe fatigue?

Can cause people to fall asleep, or have slowed

reaction time on the road. Most common in long
distance truck drivers however can affect everyone.

Most likely time to have an accident in the early hours

of the morning (most sleepy) and early afternoon
between 1:00pm and 4:00pm.
FATIGUE AND ITS AFFECTS
Government bodies have taken measures to reduce accidents caused
by fatigue, such as rumble strips and rest areas on the side of roads.

Advertisements about microsleeps make people more aware of signs

of fatigue.

Ways to reduce the impact of fatigue include: getting enough sleep

the night before, arranging overnight accommodation, avoiding
alcohol and medications which induce drowsiness and taking 15
minute breaks every two hours.

Eating healthy foods and avoiding fatty ones is also a good strategy.
FATIGUE AND ITS AFFECTS
Microsleep: a brief, unintended loss of attention
which most often occurs when a tired person is
performing a monotonous task, such as driving.

Advertisements about microsleeps make people more

aware of signs of fatigue.
SHIFTWORK AND WORKPLACE ACCIDENTS
Shiftwork is a common example of something that can
affect peoples sleep/wake circadian rhythm.

People who have constantly different shift times are

most affected.

Typically suffer from poor sleep quality and reduced

night alertness and are more likely to have accidents
on the road or in the workplace.
SHIFTWORK AND WORKPLACE ACCIDENTS
Has negative effect on health as shiftwork leads to the
circadian rhythm being de-synchronised.

Adjusting to shiftwork is difficult as external cues of light

and dark conflict with internal cues of melatonin and body
temperature.

Shift work disorder include symptoms of feeling tired and

irritable, higher rate of sleep disorders, digestive
complaints, and increased risk of cancer and heart disease.
SHIFTWORK AND WORKPLACE ACCIDENTS
Reduced sleep then leads to reduced performance on
tasks > serious problem for shift workers with
important jobs.
SHIFTWORK AND WORKPLACE ACCIDENTS
Ways to minimise negative impact of shiftwork:
Change shifts as infrequently as possible
Use bright lights to wake themselves up
Wearing dark glasses to bed to block sunlight
Taking melatonin supplements (long term affects not
known)
Taking short naps
Drink caffeinated drinks (but not too much)
During the day, sleep in dark, quiet environment
THEORIES OF SLEEP
Stage 2 Psychology
THEORIES OF SLEEP
There is no one definite explanation of why we need
sleep.

Researchers argue there is a range of reasons why we

need to sleep.

Three main ones include energy conservation,

repair and restoration and memory
consolidation.
THEORIES OF SLEEP
Energy conservation
Metabolic rate is lower, therefore not as much energy
being used when we are asleep.
Temperature lowers whilst sleeping therefore bodies
don’t need to work as hard.
THEORIES OF SLEEP
Repair and restoration
Substantial cell repair occurs in the body whilst
sleeping.
During sleep, the immune system strengthens and
eliminates waste products from muscles.
THEORIES OF SLEEP
Memory consolidation
Sleep allows our brain to consolidate learning and in
particular to make sense of memory and store them in a
logical order.
People who get plenty of deep non-REM sleep in the
first half of the night and REM in the second half
improve their ability to perform spatial tasks.
 STRESS
Altered States of Awareness
STRESS
High state of physiological arousal

When we are stressed, the flight or fight response is

triggered.

Our bodies response to stress is controlled by the

autonomic nervous system.

Comprised of two divisions: sympathetic and

parasympathetic
STRESS
Sympathetic nervous system
Activates the body in response to a threat, hence activates
the flight or fight response.
Not healthy for the body to be in this high state of stress for
long periods of time.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Slows down the body's functioning to normal levels after
the threat has passed.
Maintains energy levels and supports everyday needs of
body.
STRESS
YERKES-DODSON LAW
Stage 2 Psychology
Arousal and Task Performance
Level of arousal is closely related to task performance.

The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that humans need a low

level of arousal for a difficult cognitive task, and a high level
of arousal for a simple cognitive task. Often the best level is
in the middle.

The goal is to achieve an optimum level of arousal, meaning

we will perform the task at the best level of physiological
arousal. Particularly relevant in sport.
Arousal and Task Performance
Simple cognitive task:
A task which does not require a high level of mental
concentration/cognition.
Examples?

Complex/difficult cognitive task:

A task which does require a high level of mental
concentration/cognition.
Examples?
Yerkes-Dodson Law of Arousal
Arousal and Task Performance
Too little arousal – bored, tired: may not perform the task
at the optimum level.

Too much arousal – stress, nervous, hyperactive: may not

perform the task at optimum level.

The optimum level of arousal (OLA) depends on the

familiarity and/or difficulty of the task.

Individual differences also influence OLA, with certain

people being natural ‘thrill seekers’.
STRESS AND HEALTH
Stage 2 Psychology
STRESS AND HEALTH
Stressor – something that can lead to feeling stressed.
Can be both negative and positive
E.g. negative: death, job loss; Positive: skydiving, moving
house.

However too much stress in everyday life can have serious

effects on health.

Selye (1976) developed the term ‘general adaptation

syndrome’ to describe how the body deals with stress over
an extended period.
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
Three main sections to GAS:
1. ALARM: release of adrenaline and flight or fight response.
Body releases cortisol and epinephrine (stress hormones).

2. RESISTANCE: Parasympathetic nervous system tries to

conserve body’s energy. Physiological responses remain slightly
elevated.

3. EXHAUSTION: Body can no longer sustain heightened level

of arousal. Body’s ability to repair tissue and fight off diseases
is reduced, therefore more prone to illness.
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
HOW TO MANAGE
STRESS
Stage 2 Psychology
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Many things can be done to manage stress in everyday
life.

Important to manage stress to keep physiological and

psychological arousal at healthy levels.

Many ways to reduce stress including talking to

people, exercise, eating well, and participating in
relaxation techniques.
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Food substances
 Nicotine and coffee > stimulate sympathetic nervous system
 Make our system more reactive to stress > reduced performance and
increased anxiety
 Essential vitamins depleted when going through stress
 i.e. thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin C
 Can cause stomach upsets, muscle weakness and insomnia

 Food containing B-complex vitamins: liver, fish, leafy green veggies

STRESS MANAGEMENT
 Salt and cardiovascular disease and stroke
 Salt forces body to retain fluid
 Increases blood pressure
 Increases risk of heart attack and stroke
 Harder for bodies to cope with stressors

 Ways to reduce stress through diet

 Limit sugar intake
 Limit salt and caffeine intake
 Eat healthy food rich in vitamin B complexes and vitamin C
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Coping with stress – Humour
 Laughter stimulates sympathetic nervous system briefly
 Leads to eventual reduction in activity to below baseline
 Produces state of relaxation
 Have a laugh!
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Coping with stress – Exercise
 Reduces risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke
 Improves functioning of lungs and lung capacity
 Strengthens heart muscle
 Reduces ageing
 Reduces cholesterol
 Releases endorphins which make us feel relaxed and happy
 Yoga and Pilates also beneficial
METHODS OF
ASSESSMENT
Stage 2 Psychology
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
Sleep and Fatigue
Objective quantitative measures
Electroencephalograph (EEG) which measures brain wave
patterns during sleep.

Electrooculogram (EOG) which measures eye movement

during sleep.

Electromyogram (EMG) which measures the activity of

muscles during sleep.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
Subjective quantitative measures
Epworth Sleepiness Scale – 0-24 score indicating the
likelihood of falling asleep during the day whilst doing
random tasks.

Stanford Sleepiness Scale – rating scale from 1-7

indicating how drowsy you feel during the day/night.
(pg. 162)
METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
Stress and arousal

 Objective quantitative measure

 Polygraph test – measures heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing rate and galvanic skin response.

 Subjective quantitative measure

 Social adjustment rating scale (SRRS) – examines social
environment by measuring the degree of social adjustment to
stressors required to live normal life. (pg. 163)
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
Qualitative measures
Focus groups and the Delphi technique can be used to
assess factors related to both sleep and stress.
 ETHICS
Stage 2 Psychology
ETHICS
Important for psychologists to be aware that people
who have sleep disorders or are stressed need to be
treated as potentially vulnerable groups.

Important when getting informed consent and

voluntary participation in sleep/stress trials.

Researchers must minimise harm and remain alert to

any distress that participants may experience.
BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF
EXPLANATION
Stage 2 Psychology
BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF EXPLANATION
Remember, Altered States is directly linked to the
biological level of explanation of behaviour.

You can use content from this topic to answer

test/exam questions on the biological level.

We will now re-watch the four levels videos we did in

week 1, and apply Altered States content.