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 Prior Knowledge
 Science of Electricity- session 1
 Basics of Mechanics of Machines
 Workshop Practice

2
 Contents
 Switches
 Electromechanical Relays
 Capacitance and Capacitors
 Types of Capacitors
 Capacitor Codes
 Application Of Capacitors
 Charging & Discharging of Capacitors
 RC Constant of a capacitor
 Activities and LABs

3
Electrical Switches

4
 Electrical Switches
 Used to disconnect or connect circuit components for control
purpose
 Are available in various types and ratings
 Is having one or more inputs (poles) and outputs (throws)
 A switch and its Electrical symbol is shown below

Moving
contact

Demo

Pole/input Throw/output 5
 Types of Switches by Poles/Throws

 Single Pole-Single Throw

(SPST)
ST

 Single Pole-Double Throw

(SPDT)
DT

 Double Pole-Single Throw

(DPST)
ST

 Double Pole-Double Throw

(DPDT)
DT
Demo 6
 2 – way connection by SPDT – 2 wire

 Single Pole-Double Throw (SPDT)

DT

S1 S2 Lamp
State
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The condition of getting Output in ON condition is same as the

Ex-nor gate truth table
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 2 – way connection by SPDT – 3 wire

 Single Pole-Double Throw (SPDT)

DT

S1 S2 Lamp
State
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The condition of getting Output in ON condition is same as the

Ex-or gate truth table
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 Names of Switches by
Action/Function/Size

Push Button switch Rocker switch Toggle switch Slide switch

Roller switch Limit switch Micro/miniature switch

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Electromechanical Relays
 Electromechanical Relays
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of
electromagnet, an armature with return spring, a set of fixed
contacts, a set of moving contacts (Normally Open NO,
Normally Closed NC), a set of input and output terminals.

Schematic Diagram
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 Operation /Function of a Relay
 A relay is has two
voltage levels:
 1. Coil Voltage
called control
voltage, normally a
low voltage, 12 or
24 volts.
 2. Load voltage,
normally 110 or 220
volts.
 This way relay
provides isolation
between input and
output voltages or
circuits
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 Types of Relays By Mounting
 Panel Mounting - Contactor
 Base Mounting
 Channel Mounting
 PCB Mounting
 Soldered Base
 Reed type

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Types of Relays By Pole and Throw

Symbols of relays

 SPST
 SPDT
 DPST
 DPDT

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Types of Relays By Pole and Throw
 SPDT

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Types of Relays By Pole and Throw
 DPDT

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 Specification of PCB Mounting Relays
 A relay specification consists of:
 Coil voltage and current rating – e.g. 12 Volt, 1 Ampere
 Contact AC current and voltage rating – e.g. 10A 250VAC
 Contact DC current and Voltage – e.g. 10A 30VDC

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 PCB Mounting Relay Pinouts
 PCB Relay and Pin outs

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 Some Applications of Relays
 Electrically operated switch – manual or automatic
 Can be operated by microcontroller and program (software)
 Input and Output can be isolated at a distance away
 Can be used by a low power input signal to switch a high power
output
 Lamp flasher in automobiles (cheaper than electronic flasher)
 Used as output actuator in majority of PLC applications
 Used in electric motor starters as contactors
 Used in light controlled street lights
 Used in traffic controller lights
 Automatic door locks in automobiles

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Capacitors

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 Capacitors
 A capacitor is a passive device that can store an electric charge
(static) on its conductive plates when connected to a voltage
source.
 It consists of two metallic plates separated by a dielectric material.

 Dielectric materials are special insulators – can

be charged/discharged.
 Electrons in dielectric can move when a
voltage is applied on the plates, but cannot
flow out of its atom.
 Now the capacitor is said to be charged.
 When applied voltage is removed it discharges
and the electrons come back to its original
position. 21
 Capacitors ..
 Common Dielectric materials: air, waxed paper, polyester,
polypropylene, Mylar, mica, ceramic, glass, plastic or some
form of liquid gel.
 Due to this insulating layer capacitor blocks DC
 When used in DC, capacitor charges up to the supply voltage
 Capacitor allows the AC to pass through with little or no
resistance

 Resistance of capacitor in AC is called

capacitive Reactance Xc = 1/2πfC
 Capacitor has low reactance in AC-
inversely proportional to Frequency
and Capacitance
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Some Di-Electric Materials

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 Capacitance
 By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge
on the plates, the ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will
give the capacitance value of the capacitor and is therefore
given as:
 Capacitance of a capacitor is C = Q / V
 The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the
form of an electrostatic field is called the Capacitance of the
capacitor.
 Also capacitance is the property of a capacitor which resists
the change of voltage across it.
 Unit of Capacitance is Farad which is represented by the
letter/symbol F, named after English physicist Michael
Faraday.
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 Farad
 A Capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when a charge
of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt.
 Note that capacitance, C is always positive in value and has no
negative units.
 However, the Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its
own. So sub-multiples of the Farad are generally used such as
micro-farads, nano-farads and pico-farads, for example.
Standard Units of Capacitance
 Microfarad  (μF)   1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
 Nanofarad  (nF)   1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-
9 F

 Picofarad  (pF)   1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001

= 10-12 F

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Sub-multiples of Farad

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Sub-multiples Conversion Table

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 Voltage Rating of Capacitor
 The maximum amount of voltage that can be applied to the
capacitor without damage to its dielectric material is generally given
in the data sheets as: WV, (working voltage) or as WV DC, (DC
working voltage).
 The DC working voltage of a capacitor is just that, the maximum
DC voltage.
 Maximum AC voltage of a capacitor is RMS voltage times √2, since
an alternating voltage that has an RMS value of 100 volts will have
a peak value of over 141 volts! (√2 x 100).
 Then a capacitor which is required to operate at 100 volts AC
should have a working voltage of at least 200 volts.
 In practice, a capacitor should be selected so that its working
voltage either DC or AC should be at least 50 percent greater than
the highest effective voltage to be applied to it.
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 Types of Capacitors by
Polarization
 By polarization, there are two types of capacitors:
 Polarizing
 Non-Polarizing

 Polarizing capacitor has polarity markings in its leads, +

for positive and – for negative
 While connecting + must be connected to positive and – to
negative of DC source. Cannot be used in AC circuits.
 Non-Polarizing capacitor has no such markings and can
be connected both in DC or AC circuits
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Types of Capacitors by Dielectric

1. Electrolytic Capacitor
2. Mica Capacitor
3. Paper Capacitor
4. Film Capacitor
5. Non-Polarized Capacitor
6. Ceramic Capacitor
7. Tantalum Capacitor

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 Electrolytic Capacitor
 Electrolyte capacitors are used when the large
capacitor values are required. The thin metal film
layer is used for one electrode and for the second
electrode (cathode) a semi-liquid electrolyte
solution which is in jelly or paste is used.

 The dielectric plate is a thin layer of oxide, and it is less than the ten
microns.
 Majority of electrolytic capacitors are polarized, when DC voltage is
applied to the capacitor terminals, correct polarity must be used.
 An incorrect polarity will break the insulating oxide layer and there
will be permanent damage. 
 Cannot be used in AC circuits as there is no polarity for AC

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 Uses of Electrolytic Capacitor
 Electrolytic capacitors are generally
used in the DC power supply circuit
because they are large in
capacitance and small in reducing
the ripple voltage.
 The applications of this electrolytic
capacitors are coupling and
decoupling.
 The disadvantage of the electrolytic
capacitors is their relatively low
voltage rating because of the
polarization.
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 Mica Capacitor
 They use group of natural minerals and
the silver mica as dielectric.
 The silver mica capacitors are prepared
by sandwiching mica sheet coated with
metal on both sides and this assembly is
then encased in epoxy to protect the
environment.

 The mica capacitors are preferred in the design of stable, reliable and
relatively small circuits.
 The mica capacitors are the low loss capacitors, used at high
frequencies
 Is very stable chemically, electrically, and mechanically, because of its
specific crystalline structure.
 Mica has a high-temperature resistance also. 33
 Paper Capacitor
 The construction of paper capacitor is between
the two tin foil sheet and they are separated from the
paper, or, oiled paper & thin waxed. The sandwich
of the thin foils and papers then rolled into the
cylindrical shape and then it is enclosed into the
plastic capsule. The two thin foils of the paper
capacitors attach to the external load.
 In modern paper capacitors materials like plastics
are used as dielectric instead of paper.
 The capacitance range of the paper capacitor is from
0.001 to 2.000micro farad and the voltage is very
high which is up to 2000V.

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 Film Capacitor
 The film capacitors use extremely thin plastic as
the dielectric.
 There are different types of film capacitors are
available like polyester film, metallized film,
polypropylene film, PTE film and polystyrene
film.
 The applications of the film capacitors are
stability, low inductance, and low cost.
 The PTE film capacitance has high heat
resistance and it is used in the aerospace and
military technology.
 The metalized polyester film capacitor is used in
the applications are it requires long stability at a
relatively low cost.
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 Non-Polarized Capacitor
 Two types: plastic foil capacitor and electrolytic
nonpolarized capacitor.
 The plastic foil capacitor is non-polarized by nature
and the electrolytic capacitors are generally two
capacitors in the series, which are in the back to
back hence the result is in the non-polarized with
half capacitance.
 The nonpolarized capacitor requires AC
applications in the series or in parallel with the
signal or power supply.
 The examples are the speaker crossover filters and
power factor correction network.
 In these two applications, a large AC voltage signal
is applied across the capacitor. 36
 Ceramic Capacitors

 The ceramic capacitors use the ceramic material as a dielectric.

The ceramics are one of the first materials to use in the
production of capacitors as an insulator.
 The two common types: multilayer ceramic
capacitor (MLCC) and ceramic disc capacitor.
 The values of the ceramic capacitors are typically between the
1nF and 1µF and the values are up to 100µF are possible.
 The ceramic capacitors have high-frequency response.
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 Ceramic Capacitor - Codes
 The values of the ceramic capacitors are typically between the 1nF and 1µF
and the values are up to 100µF are possible.

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Ceramic Capacitor – Reading Codes

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 Tantalum Capacitors
 Tantalum capacitors are electrolytic
capacitors which use tantalum metal for the
anode.
 They are polarized capacitors with superior
frequency and stability characteristics.
  Has low leakage current, high capacity and
long term stability and reliability
 They are very small in size to use in computers
and cell phones.
 Costly as compared to normal electrolytic
capacitors

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More Capacitor Types

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 Capacitor Properties
 Capacitor blocks DC and allows AC to pass through.
 When DC source is connected across a capacitor, the capacitor gets
charged, storing energy in electric filed.
 Then if the terminals are shorted together, the capacitor discharges
releasing the energy as flash of fire. (do not short large charged
capacitor)
 Or if you keep the charged capacitor for some time long enough to
discharge it slowly discharges by itself.
 Capacitor is having a value known as capacitance and measured in
unit called Farad (F) or its sub multiples.
 In DC capacitor is having a high resistance measure in ohms.
 In AC capacitor is having a resistance called reactance (Xc) that is
also measured in ohms. The formula for Xc = 1/2πfC, where f is the
frequency of AC.
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 Capacitor Specification And Symbols
 Capacitor has a Type
 Has a code for its dielectric material
 Has a capacitance value in Farad or its sub multiples – written
as code or in value
 Has a voltage rating beyond with the capacitor cannot function
safely – it gets damaged.
 Polarity marking if it is a polarizing capacitor like electrolytic
or tantalum

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 Application of Capacitors
 To block(filter) DC from circuits containing mixture of AC and
DC
 To convert pulsating DC to smooth DC (or to reduce ripple)
 To create passive frequency filters
 To improve power factor of AC circuits
 To split single phase AC to ployphase AC
 To start or run single phase AC motors
 As coupling or de-coupling device in audio/video amplifier
circuits
 Switch mode power supplies (SMPS)
 Timing circuits
 Flashers in alarm systems and automobiles
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 Charging of a Capacitor – SW In 2
• When the switch is in position 2 (initial condition), Resistor-Capacitor series
circuit is not connected to the battery or ground.
• Meters read no voltage or current.

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 Charging of a Capacitor – SW In 1
• When the switch is moved to position 1, Resistor-Capacitor series circuit is
connected to the battery.
• Ammeter reads maximum current since the capacitor acts as a short circuit
intitialy.
• Volt meter reads zero initially.

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 Charging of a Capacitor
• When the switch continues to be in position 1, after the initial stage,
capacitor starts charging through the resistor.
• Once the capacitor is fully charged to the battery voltage, the current
through it reduces to zero (ammeter reads zero), and the voltmeter reads the
battery voltage.
• Now the capacitor is said to be fully charged.

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 Discharging of a Capacitor
• When the switch is moved to position 3, the RC circuit is short circuited and
the capacitor starts to discharge through the resistor.
• Current through the capacitor is maximum as the capacitor acts as a short
circuit and also in reverse direction .
• Now the voltage across the capacitor is also maximum.
• Once the capacitor is fully discharged both the current and voltage reduce to
zero.
• Now the capacitor is said to be fully discharged.

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 RC Time Constant of a Capacitor
• The rate of charging is typically described in terms of a time constant ꚍ
= RC and is expressed in seconds. (R in Ohms and C in Farads)
• For any capacitor, it takes one RC seconds to reach 63% of its full charge.
• For any capacitor, it takes five RC seconds to reach 99% of its full charge.
Note, it never charges up to 100% as the capacitor has a small DC resistor.
• Similarly, it takes one time constant to reach 36% of charge while
discharging.

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 Activity 2.1: Calculating Charging
Time of a Capacitor

Refer the circuit of capacitor 1000 micro-farad, resistor 3 kilo-ohms and a

battery of 9 volts. Find the time required for the capacitor to reach 99% of the
full battery voltage.

Solution:
One time constant ꚍ = RC = 3000 x 1000 x 10-3 = 3 seconds.
Therefore five time constant 5ꚍ = 5 x 3 = 15 seconds

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 Activity 2.2 : Charge-discharge a Capacitor
using analog MM
2.2 . Use Analog meter or manually charge/discharge
 Activity 2.3: Testing a Capacitor using
MM
2.3 Use capacitance meter or Analog or digital meter
 Activity 2.4: Blinking LED using a Capacitor

 2.4. Assemble the following circuit in a breadboard and test.

 Materials: Breadboard, Red LED, 9 Volt relay with 1 NO + 1
NC contacts, 2200 ufd, 25 volt electrolytic capacitor, 100
ohms ½ watt resistor, 330 ohms ½ watt resistor, PP3 battery,
required wires

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 Any Questions?

Year 1 Session 2 Concludes

Thank You !

Vijaya Kumar

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