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Polynomials
Chapter Sections
Part 1 The Greatest Common Factor
Part 2 Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c
Part 3 Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax2 + bx + c
Part 4 Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c
by Grouping
Part 5 Factoring Perfect Square Trinomials and
Difference of Two Squares
Part 6 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Part 7 Quadratic Equations and Problem Solving
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 2
The Greatest Common
Factor
Factors
Factors (either numbers or polynomials)
When an integer is written as a product of integers, each
of the integers in the product is a factor of the original
number.
When a polynomial is written as a product of polynomials,
each of the polynomials in the product is a factor of the
original polynomial.
.
Factoring – writing a polynomial as a product of
polynomials
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IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
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Mathematics 4
Greatest Common Factor
Greatest common factor – largest quantity that is a
factor of all the integers or polynomials involved.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
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Mathematics 5
Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of each list of numbers.
1) 12 and 8
12 = 2 · 2 · 3
8=2·2·2
So the GCF is 2 · 2 = 4.
2) 7 and 20
7=1·7
20 = 2 · 2 · 5
There are no common prime factors so the
GCF is 1.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 6
Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of each list of numbers.
1) 6, 8 and 46
6=2·3
8=2·2·2
46 = 2 · 23
So the GCF is 2.
2) 144, 256 and 300
144 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3
256 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2
300 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 5 · 5
So the GCF is 2 · 2 = 4.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 7
Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of each list of terms.
1) x3 and x7
x3 = x · x · x
x7 = x · x · x · x · x · x · x
So the GCF is x · x · x = x3
t 6x5 and 4x3
6x5 = 2 · 3 · x · x · x
4x3 = 2 · 2 · x · x · x
So the GCF is 2 · x · x · x = 2x3
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 8
Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of the following list of terms.
a3b2, a2b5 and a4b7
a3b2 = a · a · a · b · b
a2b5 = a · a · b · b · b · b · b
a4b7 = a · a · a · a · b · b · b · b · b · b · b
So the GCF is a · a · b · b = a2b2
Notice that the GCF of terms containing variables will use the
smallest exponent found amongst the individual terms for each
variable.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 9
Factoring Polynomials
The first step in factoring a polynomial is to
find the GCF of all its terms.
Then we write the polynomial as a product by
factoring out the GCF from all the terms.
The remaining factors in each term will form a
polynomial.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 10
Factoring out the GCF
Example
Factor out the GCF in each of the following
polynomials.
1) 6x3 – 9x2 + 12x = 3 · x · 2 · x2 – 3 · x · 3 · x + 3 · x · 4
= 3x(2x2 – 3x + 4)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 11
Factoring out the GCF
Example
Factor out the GCF in each of the following
polynomials.
1) 6(x + 2) – y(x + 2) =
6 · (x + 2) – y · (x + 2) =
(x + 2)(6 – y)
2) xy(y + 1) – (y + 1) =
xy · (y + 1) – 1 · (y + 1) =
(y + 1)(xy – 1)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 12
Factoring
Remember that factoring out the GCF from the terms of
a polynomial should always be the first step in factoring
a polynomial.
This will usually be followed by additional steps in the
process.
Example
Factor 90 + 15y2 – 18x – 3xy2.
90 + 15y2 – 18x – 3xy2 = 3(30 + 5y2 – 6x – xy2) =
3(5 · 6 + 5 · y2 – 6 · x – x · y2) =
3(5(6 + y2) – x (6 + y2)) =
3(6 + y2)(5 – x)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 13
Factoring Trinomials of the
Form x + bx + c
2
Factoring Trinomials
Recall by using the FOIL method that
F O I L
(x + 2)(x + 4) = x2 + 4x + 2x + 8
= x2 + 6x + 8
To factor x2 + bx + c into (x + one #)(x + another #),
note that b is the sum of the two numbers and c is the
product of the two numbers.
So we’ll be looking for 2 numbers whose product is c
and whose sum is b.
Note: there are fewer choices for the product, so that’s
why we start there first.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 15
Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 + 13x + 30.
Since our two numbers must have a product of 30 and a
sum of 13, the two numbers must both be positive.
Positive factors of 30 Sum of Factors
1, 30 31
2, 15 17
3, 10 13
Note, there are other factors, but once we find a pair
that works, we do not have to continue searching.
So x2 + 13x + 30 = (x + 3)(x + 10).
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 16
Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 – 11x + 24.
Since our two numbers must have a product of 24 and a
sum of -11, the two numbers must both be negative.
Negative factors of 24 Sum of Factors
– 1, – 24 – 25
– 2, – 12 – 14
– 3, – 8 – 11
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 20
Factoring Trinomials of
the Form ax + bx + c
2
Factoring Trinomials
Returning to the FOIL method,
F O I L
(3x + 2)(x + 4) = 3x2 + 12x + 2x + 8
= 3x2 + 14x + 8
To factor ax2 + bx + c into (#1·x + #2)(#3·x + #4), note
that a is the product of the two first coefficients, c is
the product of the two last coefficients and b is the
sum of the products of the outside coefficients and
inside coefficients.
Note that b is the sum of 2 products, not just 2
numbers, as in the last section.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 22
Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 25x2 + 20x + 4.
Possible factors of 25x2 are {x, 25x} or {5x, 5x}.
Possible factors of 4 are {1, 4} or {2, 2}.
We need to methodically try each pair of factors until we find
a combination that works, or exhaust all of our possible pairs
of factors.
Keep in mind that, because some of our pairs are not identical
factors, we may have to exchange some pairs of factors and
make 2 attempts before we can definitely decide a particular
pair of factors will not work. Continued.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 23
Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
We will be looking for a combination that gives the sum of the
products of the outside terms and the inside terms equal to 20x.
Factors Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of 25x2 of 4 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products
Continued.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 28
Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Check the resulting factorization using the FOIL method.
F O I L
(3x – 5)(7x – 2) = 3x(7x) + 3x(-2) - 5(7x) - 5(-2)
= 21x2 – 6x – 35x + 10
= 21x2 – 41x + 10
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 32
Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 6x2y2 – 2xy2 – 60y2.
Continued.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 36
Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Check the resulting factorization using the FOIL method.
F O I L
(3x – 10)(x + 3) = 3x(x) + 3x(3) – 10(x) – 10(3)
= 3x2 + 9x – 10x – 30
= 3x2 – x – 30
So our final answer when asked to factor the polynomial
6x2y2 – 2xy2 – 60y2 will be 2y2(3x – 10)(x + 3).
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 37
Factoring Trinomials of
the Form x + bx + c
2
by Grouping
Factoring by Grouping
Factoring polynomials often involves additional
techniques after initially factoring out the GCF.
One technique is factoring by grouping.
Example
Factor xy + y + 2x + 2 by grouping.
Notice that, although 1 is the GCF for all four
terms of the polynomial, the first 2 terms have a
GCF of y and the last 2 terms have a GCF of 2.
xy + y + 2x + 2 = x · y + 1 · y + 2 · x + 2 · 1 =
y(x + 1) + 2(x + 1) = (x + 1)(y + 2)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 39
Factoring by Grouping
Factoring a Four-Term Polynomial by Grouping
1) Arrange the terms so that the first two terms have a
common factor and the last two terms have a common
factor.
2) For each pair of terms, use the distributive property to
factor out the pair’s greatest common factor.
3) If there is now a common binomial factor, factor it out.
4) If there is no common binomial factor in step 3, begin
again, rearranging the terms differently.
• If no rearrangement leads to a common binomial
factor, the polynomial cannot be factored.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 40
Factoring by Grouping
Example
Factor each of the following polynomials by grouping.
1) x3 + 4x + x2 + 4 = x · x2 + x · 4 + 1 · x2 + 1 · 4 =
x(x2 + 4) + 1(x2 + 4) =
(x2 + 4)(x + 1)
2) 2x3 – x2 – 10x + 5 = x2 · 2x – x2 · 1 – 5 · 2x – 5 · (– 1) =
x2(2x – 1) – 5(2x – 1) =
(2x – 1)(x2 – 5)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 41
Factoring by Grouping
Example
Factor 2x – 9y + 18 – xy by grouping.
Neither pair has a common factor (other than 1).
So, rearrange the order of the factors.
2x + 18 – 9y – xy = 2 · x + 2 · 9 – 9 · y – x · y =
2(x + 9) – y(9 + x) =
2(x + 9) – y(x + 9) = (make sure the factors are identical)
(x + 9)(2 – y)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 42
Factoring Perfect Square
Trinomials and the
Difference of Two Squares
Perfect Square Trinomials
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 44
Perfect Square Trinomials
In the last chapter we learned a shortcut for squaring a
binomial
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
So if the first and last terms of our polynomial to be
factored are can be written as expressions squared, and
the middle term of our polynomial is twice the product
of those two expressions, then we can use these two
previous equations to easily factor the polynomial.
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 45
Perfect Square Trinomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 16x2 – 8xy + y2.
Since the first term, 16x2, can be written as (4x)2, and
the last term, y2 is obviously a square, we check the
middle term.
8xy = 2(4x)(y) (twice the product of the expressions
that are squared to get the first and last terms of the
polynomial)
Therefore 16x2 – 8xy + y2 = (4x – y)2.
Note: You can use FOIL method to verify that the
factorization for the polynomial is accurate.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 46
Difference of Two Squares
9x2 – 25y2
– c4 + d4
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 47
Difference of Two Squares
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 – 9.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 48
Solving Quadratic
Equations by Factoring
Zero Factor Theorem
Quadratic Equations
• Can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
• a, b and c are real numbers and a 0.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 50
Solving Quadratic Equations
Steps for Solving a Quadratic Equation by
Factoring
1) Write the equation in standard form.
2) Factor the quadratic completely.
3) Set each factor containing a variable equal to 0.
4) Solve the resulting equations.
5) Check each solution in the original equation.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 51
Solving Quadratic Equations
Example
Solve x2 – 5x = 24.
• First write the quadratic equation in standard form.
x2 – 5x – 24 = 0
• Now we factor the quadratic using techniques from
the previous sections.
x2 – 5x – 24 = (x – 8)(x + 3) = 0
• We set each factor equal to 0.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 53
Solving Quadratic Equations
Example
Solve 4x(8x + 9) = 5
• First write the quadratic equation in standard form.
32x2 + 36x = 5
32x2 + 36x – 5 = 0
• Now we factor the quadratic using techniques from the
previous sections.
32x2 + 36x – 5 = (8x – 1)(4x + 5) = 0
• We set each factor equal to 0.
8x – 1 = 0 or 4x + 5 = 0 1 5
8x = 1 or 4x = – 5, which simplifies to x = 8 or .
4
Continued.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 54
Solving Quadratic Equations
Example Continued
• Check both possible answers in the original equation.
4
1
8
8
1
8
9 4
1
8
1
1
1 9 4 8 (10) 2 (10) 5
true
4
5
4
5 5 5
8 9 4 10 9 4 (1) (5)(1) 5
4 4 4
true
1 5
• So our solutions for x are 8
or .
4
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 55
Finding x-intercepts
Recall that in Chapter 3, we found the x-intercept of linear
equations by letting y = 0 and solving for x.
The same method works for x-intercepts in quadratic
equations.
Note: When the quadratic equation is written in standard
form, the graph is a parabola opening up (when a > 0) or
down (when a < 0), where a is the coefficient of the x2
term.
The intercepts will be where the parabola crosses the x-
axis.
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 56
Finding x-intercepts
Example
Find the x-intercepts of the graph of y = 4x2 + 11x + 6.
The equation is already written in standard form, so
we let y = 0, then factor the quadratic in x.
0 = 4x2 + 11x + 6 = (4x + 3)(x + 2)
We set each factor equal to 0 and solve for x.
4x + 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
4x = –3 or x = –2
x = –¾ or x = –2
So the x-intercepts are the points (–¾, 0) and (–2, 0).
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 57
Quadratic Equations
and Problem Solving
Strategy for Problem Solving
General Strategy for Problem Solving
1) Understand the problem
• Read and reread the problem
• Choose a variable to represent the unknown
• Construct a drawing, whenever possible
• Propose a solution and check
2) Translate the problem into an equation
3) Solve the equation
4) Interpret the result
• Check proposed solution in problem
• State your conclusion
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 59
Finding an Unknown Number
Example
The product of two consecutive positive integers is 132. Find the
two integers.
1.) Understand
Read and reread the problem. If we let
x = one of the unknown positive integers, then
x + 1 = the next consecutive positive integer.
Continued
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 60
Finding an Unknown Number
Example continued
2.) Translate
The product of
is 132
two consecutive positive integers
x • (x + 1) = 132
Continued
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 61
Finding an Unknown Number
Example continued
3.) Solve
x(x + 1) = 132
x2 + x = 132 (Distributive property)
x2 + x – 132 = 0 (Write quadratic in standard form)
(x + 12)(x – 11) = 0 (Factor quadratic polynomial)
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 63
The Pythagorean Theorem
Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the sum of the squares of the
lengths of the two legs is equal to the square of the
length of the hypotenuse.
(leg a)2 + (leg b)2 = (hypotenuse)2
hypotenuse
leg a
leg b
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
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Mathematics 64
The Pythagorean Theorem
Example
Find the length of the shorter leg of a right triangle if the longer leg
is 10 miles more than the shorter leg and the hypotenuse is 10 miles
less than twice the shorter leg.
1.) Understand
Read and reread the problem. If we let 2 x - 10
x = the length of the shorter leg, then x
x + 10 = the length of the longer leg and
x + 10
2x – 10 = the length of the hypotenuse.
Continued
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
Mathematics
Developmental Department
Department
Mathematics 65
The Pythagorean Theorem
Example continued
2.) Translate
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
(leg a)2 + (leg b)2 = (hypotenuse)2
x2 + (x + 10)2 = (2x – 10)2
3.) Solve
x2 + (x + 10)2 = (2x – 10)2
x2 + x2 + 20x + 100 = 4x2 – 40x + 100 (multiply the binomials)
2x2 + 20x + 100 = 4x2 – 40x + 100 (simplify left side)
0 = 2x2 – 60x (subtract 2x2 + 20x + 100 from both sides)
0 = 2x(x – 30) (factor right side)
x = 0 or x = 30 (set each factor = 0 and solve) Continued
Irene Apilada-Gilua,
IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
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Developmental Department
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Mathematics 66
The Pythagorean Theorem
Example continued
4.) Interpret
Check: Remember that x is suppose to represent the length of
the shorter side. So, although x = 0 satisfies our equation, it
cannot be a solution for the problem we were presented.
If we let x = 30, then x + 10 = 40 and 2x – 10 = 50. Since 302 +
402 = 900 + 1600 = 2500 = 502, the Pythagorean Theorem
checks out.
State: The length of the shorter leg is 30 miles. (Remember that
is all we were asked for in this problem.)
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IreneMartin-Gay,
Apilada-Gilua, Mathematics
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Mathematics 67