ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

ANGLE

• From division of the circle, all of angular

measurement is derived and provable
• Angle deal with direction – not space
• Angle is a relationship between two lines
• We can measure this relationship if we
extend the lines until they intersect
• The intersection is called the vertex, and the
lines are sides
• See figure 1
 Figure 1

The angle is defined as AOB. It refers to the directions of the sides,

not to the space between them
 Angle (cont’)

• Right angle – one-fourth of circle or one

quadrant
• Acute angle - an angle measures less
than 90o
• Obtuse angle - an angel measure more
than 90o
• See figure 2
 Figure 2

A right angle is 90.if smaller, it is acute; if larger, it is obtuse

 Universal bevel protractor
 It is a simplest instrument for
measuring the angle between two
faces of a component.
 It consists of a base plate attached
to a main body and an adjustable
blade which is attached to a circular
plate containing vernier scale.
 The adjustable blade is capable of
sliding freely along the groove
provided on it and can be clamped at
any convenient length.
 The adjustable blade along with the
circular plate containing the vernier
can rotate freely about the center of
the main scale engraved on the body
of the instrument and can be locked
in any position with the help of a
clamping knob.
 Bevel protractor ..................
graduations and its least count

• The main scale is graduated

in degrees. The vernier scale
has 12 divisions on either
side of the center zero.
 They are marked 0-60
minutes of arc, so that each
division is 1/12th of 60
minutes, i.e. 5 minutes. These
12 divisions occupy same arc
space as 23 degrees on the
main scale, such that each
division of the vernier =
(1/12)*23 = 1(11/12) degrees.
 Degrees are read directly, but
minutes are read with the
vernier scale

Care must be used to read the minutes

from the correct pair of lined-up
graduation 12o 50’
Always read the vernier in the same direction from zero that
the dial is read and add the vernier minutes to the scale
degrees
SINE BAR
 A sine bar consists of a hardened,
precision ground body with two precision
ground cylinders fixed at the ends.
The distance between the centers of
the cylinders is precisely controlled, and
the top of the bar is parallel to a line
through the centers of the two rollers.
The dimension between the two rollers
is chosen to be a whole number (for
ease of later calculations) and forms the
hypotenuse of a triangle when in use.
When a sine bar is placed on a level
surface the top edge will be parallel to
that surface.

If one roller is raised by a known distance, usually using gauge blocks, then the top
edge of the bar will be tilted by the same amount forming an angle that may be
calculated by the application of the sine rule.
The hypotenuse is a constant
dimension—(100 mm or 10 inches in
the examples shown).
•The height is obtained from the
dimension between the bottom of one
roller and the table's surface.
•The angle is calculated by using the
sine rule.
•Some engineering and metalworking
reference books contain tables showing
the dimension required to obtain an
angle from 0-90 degrees, incremented
by 1 minute intervals.
•Angles may be measured or set with
this tool.
Sine bar……
The sine principle uses the ratio of the
length of two sides of a right triangle in
deriving a given angle.
It may be noted that devices operating on
sine principal are capable of self
generation.
The measurement is usually limited to 45
degree from loss of accuracy point of view.
The accuracy with which the sine
principle can be put to use is dependent in
practice, on some from linear
measurement.
The sine bar itself is not complete
measuring instrument.
Another datum such as surface plate
is needed, as well as other auxiliary
instrument, notably slip gauge, and
indicating device to make
measurements.
Set an angle of 1308’42” using, 100mm
sine bar and M87 set slip gauges.
SinΘ=H/L

Sin1308’42”=H/100

0.227416=H/100

Now H=22.7416 mm

Now build the stack of slip gauge height=22.7416 mm by using

M87 set of slip gauges

SINE CENTER
 Dd
Tan  =
2l

Sine center consists of a self-contained sine bar hinged at one roller and mounted
on its own datum surface& the top surface of the bar is provided with clamps &
centers to hold the work.
For the dial gauge to read zero, the accurate semi cone angle =Θ=Sin--1(H/L).
 INTERFROMETRY

Optical Interfrometry is an optical measurement technique that

provides extreme precise measurements of distance, displacement or
shape and surface of objects.
It exploits the phenomenon of light waves interference .
Where under certain conditions a pattern of dark and light bars
called interference fringes can be produced.

The recent developments in laser, fiber optics and digital processing

techniques have supported optical interferometry.

Applications ranging from the measurement of a molecule size to

the diameters of stars.
 Interference

• Interference is a light phenomenon .It

can be seen in everyday life. e.g..
colures of oil film floating on water.

• In electromagnetic waves , interference

between two or more waves is just an
addition or superposition process. It
results in a new wave pattern .
PRINCIPLE OF INTERFEROMETRY
WAVES IN PHASE & OUT OF PHASE
 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOCOLLIMATOR
 An autocollimator is an optical instrument that is used to measure small

angles with very high sensitivity.

As such, the autocollimator has a wide variety of applications including
precision alignment, detection of angular movement, verification of angle
standards, and angular monitoring over long periods.
The autocollimator projects a beam of collimated light.
 An external reflector reflects all or part of the beam back into the
instrument
where the beam is focused and detected by a photo detector or is focused
on a reticule target and detected by the eye.
The autocollimator measures the deviation between the emitted beam and
the reflected beam.
Because the autocollimator uses light to measure angles, it never comes
into contact with the test surface.
 Autocollimators
Principle
The two main principles used in an autocollimator are
(a)the projection and the refraction of a parallel beam of light by a lens, and
(b) the change in direction of a reflected angle on a plane reflecting surface
with change in angle of incidence.

Reflector is at 90° with the Direction of Rays

When a beam of light strikes a flat reflecting surface, a part of the

beam is absorbed and the other part is reflected back.
If the angle of incidence is zero, i.e. incident rays fall
perpendicular to the reflecting surface, the reflected rays retrace
original path.
Reflector is not at Right Angles to the Direction of the Rays

When the reflecting plane is tilted at certain angle, the total angle
through which the light is deflected is twice the angle through which the
mirror is tilted.
Thus, alternately, if the incident rays are not at right angle to the
reflecting surface they can be brought to the focal plane of the light sources
by tilting the reflecting plane at an angle half the angle of reflection as shown
in Figure
Now, from the diagram, OO’ = 2Θ × f = x, where f is the focal length of the
lens.
 AUTOCOLLIMATOR

Autocollimator is an optical instrument for non-contact

measurement of angles.
They are typically used to align components and measure
deflections in optical or mechanical systems.
An autocollimator works by projecting an image onto a
target mirror, and measuring the deflection of the
returned image against a scale, either visually or by means
of an electronic detector.
A visual autocollimator can measure angles as small as 0.5
arc second, while an electronic autocollimator can be up to
100 times more accurate.
Principle of Microptic Autocollimator

 A cross line “target” graticule

is positioned at the focal plane
of a telescope objective
system with the intersection
of the cross line on the
optical axis, i.e. at the principal
focus.
 When the target graticule is
illuminated, rays of light
diverging from the intersection
point reach the objective via a
beam splitter and are
projected-from the objective
as parallel pencils of light.
Principle of Microptic Autocollimator  In this mode, the optical system. is
operating as a “collimator”

Contd ...  A flat reflector placed in front of the

objective and exactly normal to the
optical axis reflects the parallel pencils
of light back along their original paths.
 They are then brought to focus in the
plane of the target graticule and
exactor coincident with its intersection.
 A proportion of the returned light
passes straight through the beam
splitter and the return image of the
target cross line is therefore visible
through the eyepiece.
 In this mode, the optical system is
operating as a telescope focused at
infinity.
If the reflector is tilted through a
small angle the reflected pencils of light
will be deflected by twice the angle of
tilt (principle of reflection) and will be
brought to focus in the plane of the
target graticule but linearly displaced
from the actual target cross lines by an
amount 2θ * f.
Linear displacement of the graticule
image in the plane of the eyepiece is
therefore directly proportional to
reflector tilt and can be measured by an
eyepiece graticule, optical micrometer on
electronic detector system, scaled
directly in angular units.
The autocollimator is set permanently
at infinity focus and no device for
focusing adjustment for distance is
provided or desirable.
It responds only to reflector tilt (not
lateral displacement of the reflector).
 The points to be noted are:

1.The position of the final image does not depend upon the objective lens.

2.If the reflector is completely moved back i.e. if Θ become gauge, the

reflected rays will completely miss the lens and no image will be formed.

3.For high sensitivities i.e. for large value of X for smaller angular
deviation a long focal length is required.
Autocollimator Applications:
i. The measurement of straightness & flatness
ii. Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons
iii. Comparative measurement using master angles
iv. Assessment of squareness & parallelism of components
v. Measurement of small linear dimensions
OPTICAL FLATS
 Optical Flat
1. Optical flat are flat lenses, made from quartz, having a
very accurate surface to transmit light.

2. They are used in interferometers, for testing plane

surfaces.

3. The diameter of an optical flat varies from 50 to

250mm and thickness varies from 12 to 25 mm.

4. Optical flats are made in a range of sizes and shapes.

5. The flats are available with a coated surface.

6. The coating is a thin film, usually titanium oxide, applied

on the surface to reduce the light lost by reflection.

7. The coating is so thin that it does not affect the

position of the fringe bands, but a coated flat
Optical flats are cylindrical in form, with the working surface and are of two types
are i) type A, ii) type B.

i. Type A: It has only one surface flat and is used for testing flatness of precision
measuring surfaces of flats, slip gauges and measuring tables.
For these optical flats. their diameter and grade are important.
The dimensions of an optical flat of grades I and II can be 25 x 10, 30 x 10, 50
x 15, 75 x 20, 100x 25, 125 x30, 160 x 35 (diameter - thickness in mm).
The tolerance on flat should be 0.05 μm for type A.

ii. Type B: It has both surfaces flat and parallel to each other.
They are used for testing measuring surfaces of micrometers, measuring anvils
and similar length of measuring devices for testing flatness and parallelism.
For these instruments, their thickness and grades are important.
The tolerances on flatness, parallelism and thickness should be 0.05 μm.
Principle of operation of optical flats
Principle of operation of optical flats .. .. ….
Pattern of fringes for different contours