Chapter 1 Money and

Monetary System
 Chapter 1
• Money and Monetary System
• Money supply and Money demand
• Inflation and deflation
Part 1 Money and Monetary System
 Questions
• What is money?
• When did money appear?
• What are the functions of money?
• What are the types of money?
• How can we measure money?
 Question
• When you buy a pair of jeans or a CD, for example,
you never wonder whether the merchant will
accept the bills and coins in your wallet as
payment.
• But suppose money didn't exist. How would you
pay for the things you want to buy?
 Origin of Money
• Barter • Disadvantages of Barter
• —exchange goods with goods. • Deterioration
• Such as: • Indivisibility
• Goat, stone, ox, salt, shell,peal, j • Inefficient and Protracted (rate
ade,iron,…… of exchange)
• Double coincidence of wants
• silver, gold overcame such
shortcomings
Commodity money
— Precious metals like gold and silver Paper currency
(fiat money)
13 century A.D. Bill of exchange
Promissory Note
Cheque/check
Expensive
Exchange for GBP1,250.00 Beijing,1 April,2003
At sight pay to the order of DEF Co.the sum

Risky of Pounds one thousand two hundred and fifty only

To XYZ Bank, For ABC Co., Beijing

Turnover of funds London (signature)

slow End of 18 century

Foreign exchange bank
 Evolution of Money
• Paper currency (fiat money) ( intrinsically worthless)
— Fiat money has not only no particular value in use;
it doesn’t even really have a value in exchange
except that which is decreed that it would have.
• Checks —18th century
• Electronic means of payment —credit card.
 Definition of Money

• Question 1:
• ——What is money?
• Money can be described as any commodity or
token that is generally acceptable as a means of
payment for goods or services or in the repayment
of debt.
• Can you list some kinds of money?
• —— Paper cash, coins
 Definition of Money

• Question 2:
• ——Do you know currency and money?
• Currency—consisting of dollar bills and coins, is
one type of money.
• And there are other types of money are not currenc
y, such as check, saving deposits.
 Definition of Money
• Question 3:
• ——Do you know the difference between wealth and
money?
• — Wealth means great amount of property, money, etc.
• (1)In the private sense, all property which has a money
value.
• (2) In the public sense, all objects, esp. material objects,
which have economic utility.
• Can you list some kinds of wealth do not belong to
money?
• — Art, houses, stocks, bonds, cars, jewels……
 Definition of Money

• Question 4:
• ——Do you know the difference
between income and money?
• —Income is a flow of earnings per
unit of time;
• —Money is a stock: it is a certain
amount at a given point in time.
 Additional question
• What is difference between revenue and
income?
• — For corporations, revenues minus cost of
sales, operating expenses, and taxes, over a
given period of time.
 Functions of money
• Medium of exchange
• Unit of account
• Store of value
 Medium of exchange

• In almost all market transactions in our economy,

money in the form of currency or checks is a
medium of exchange; it is used to pay for goods
and services.
• The use of money as a medium of exchange
promotes economic efficiency by eliminating much
of the time spent in exchanging goods and services.
 Medium of exchange

• The time spent trying to exchange goods or

services is called a transaction cost. In a barter
economy, transaction costs are high because people
have to satisfy a “double coincidence of wants”—
they have to find someone who has goods or
service they want and who also wants the goods or
service they have to offer.
 Medium of exchange

• Money is therefore essential in an economy

it is a lubricant that allows the economy to
run more smoothly by lowering transaction
costs, thereby encouraging specialization
and the division of labor.
 Unit of account

• The second role of money is to provide a

unit of account; that is, it is used to measure
value in the economy. We measure the value
of goods and services in terms of money,
just as we measure weight in terms of
pounds or distance in terms of miles.
 Store of value

• Money also functions as a store of value: it is a

repository of purchasing power over time. It is an
asset. It’s something that we can use to store value
away to be retrieved at a later point in time. So we
can not consume today, we can hold money
instead—and transfer that consumption power to
some point in the future.
• Is money the only choice we have to
store value?
• They often pay the owner a higher interest
rate than money, experience price
appreciation, and deliver services such as
providing a roof over one's head.
• If these assets are a more desirable store of
value than money, why do people hold
money at all?
 Additional question

•Among all of functions,

which is basic function? And
which is derivative?
 Simply speaking
• Money is a medium of exchange accepted by the
community, meaning it's what people buy things with and
sell things for.

• Money provides a standard for measuring value (unit of

account), so that the worth of different goods and services
can be compared.

• Money is a store of value that can be saved for later

purchases.
 Monetary System
• The monetary system is the structure,
system and organization in money
circulation by the law of country.
 Monetary System
• The Silver Standard ( 16th century)

• The imetallic standard ( 16 – 18 century)

• The Gold Standard (1813-1914)

 The Silver Standard
• The standard money was minted by silver.
• Silver coins had unlimited power of legal
tender
• Silver coins could be minted freely
• Silver coins could be exported and imported
freely
 The Silver Standard
• The value of silver was low
• The Silver Standard could no longer be
suitable for the economic development
 The Bimetallic Standard
• Both gold and silver were recognized by law
as montary metal.
• Both gold and silver coins were in circultion
and could be minted freely
• Both gold and silver had unlimited power of
legal tender.
• The two metals were interchangeable
 The Bimetallic Standard
• The Bimetallic Standard was difficult to
maintain the ratio between silver and gold
• Grasham’s Law
Bad money drove out good money acted
(Bad money was abundant in the market
when its nominal value was higher than its
real value ）
 The Gold Standard
• The standard money was minted by gold
• Gold coins had unlimited power of legal
tender
• Gold coins could be minted freely
• Gold coins could be exported and imported
freely (this guaranteed the stable ratio of
gold coins to foreign currencies)
 The Gold Standard
• Nature resource (the limitation of quantity)
• The distribution of gold mines are uneven
 Inconvertible Credit Money Standard
• Has no metal standard money
• Still use the denomination of units of metal
standard money
• Banknotes do not have the provision of gold
content
• Banknotes can not be converted into gold
• Banknotes are put into circulation by law,
have unlimited power of legal tender
 Question
• Gold is still in need, or not?
Money aggregate demand and aggregate
supply
 Liquidity
• The relative ease and speed with which an
asset can be converted into a medium of
exchange.
 Liquidity
• Liquidity is highly desirable.
• Money is the most liquid asset of all because it is
the medium of exchange; it does not have to be
converted into anything else in order to make
purchases.
• Other assets involve transaction costs when they
are converted into money.
 The Monetary Aggregates
• M0 (currency—paper money and coins)

• M1 =M0+demand deposit

• M2 =M1+time deposit+savings deposit+other kinds

of deposit+money market mutual fund

• M3=M2+Large-scale time deposit + term deposit

 M0 (currency—paper money and coins)

• The bills and coins that we use today are

known as currency ．
• Deposits at banks and other financial
institutions are also money because they can
be converted into currency and because they
are used to settle debts ．
 M1 =M0+demand deposit

• M1 consists of currency and traveler’s checks plus

checking deposits owned by individuals and businesses
and it does not include currency held by banks ， and it
does not include currency and checking account owned
by the government ．
 M2
• M2 consists of M1 plus savings deposits ， time
deposits ， money market mutual funds ， and
other deposits ．
 M3
• M3, which consists of M2 plus large—scale time deposits
and term deposits ．
Money aggregate demand and aggregate
supply
• “=“ Balance

• “>” Deflation

• “<“ Inflation
 The money supply and
monetary policy definitions
• The money supply is the quantity of money
available in the economy.
• Monetary policy is the control over the
money supply.
• Monetary policy is conducted by a country’s
central bank.
 The Quantity Theory of Money

• A simple theory linking the inflation rate to the

growth rate of the money supply.
• Begins with the concept of velocity…
• basic concept: the rate at which money circulates
– definition: the number of times the average dollar bill
changes hands in a given time period
– example: In 2007, $500 billion in transactions
– money supply = $100 billion
– The average dollar is used in five transactions in 2007
– So, velocity = 5
 Velocity, cont.
• This suggests the following definition:

P T
V
M
where
V = velocity
T = Quantity of all transactions
P = Price
M = money supply
 Velocity, cont.
• Use nominal GDP as a proxy for total
transactions. Then,

P Y
V
M
where
P= price of output (GDP deflator)
Y= quantity of output (real GDP)
P Y= value of output (nominal GDP)
 The quantity equation
• The quantity equation M  V = P  Y follows
from the preceding definition of velocity.
• It is an identity: it holds by definition of the
variables.
Money demand and the quantity equation

• M/P = real money balances, the purchasing

power of the money supply.
• A simple money demand function:
(M/P)d=kY
where
k = how much money people wish to hold
for each dollar of income.
(k is exogenous)
Money demand and the quantity equation

• money demand: (M/P)d=kY

• quantity equation: MV = PY
• The connection between them: k = 1/V
• When people hold lots of money relative
to their incomes (k is high), money changes
hands infrequently (V is low).
 The quantity theory of money

• assumes V is constant & exogenous: V  V

• With this assumption, the quantity equation
can be written as
M V  P Y
How the price level is determined:
– With V constant, the money supply determines nominal
GDP (P Y ).
– Real GDP is determined by the economy’s supplies of K
and L and the production function .
– P = (nominal GDP)/(real GDP).
 The quantity theory of money
• The growth rate of a product equals
the sum of the growth rates. The quantity
equation in growth rates:
M V P Y
  
M V P Y

The quantity theory of money assumes

V
V is constant, so = 0.
V
 The quantity theory of money

P M P Y
   
P M P Y

M Y
 
M Y

• Normal economic growth requires a certain amount of

money supply growth to facilitate the growth in
transactions.
• Money growth in excess of this amount leads to inflation.
 The quantity theory of money

Y/Y depends on growth in the factors of

production and on technological progress
(all of which we take as given, for now).
• Hence, the Quantity Theory predicts a one-
for-one relation between changes in the
money growth rate and changes in the
inflation rate.
 TEST
• The quantity theory of money implies
– 1.countries with higher money growth rates
should have higher inflation rates.
– 2.the long-run trend behavior of a country’s
inflation should be similar to the long-run trend
in the country’s money growth rate.
• Are the data consistent with these
implications?
 U.S. inflation and money growth,
1960-2006
15% Over
Over the
the long
long run,
run, the
the inflation
inflation and
and
money
money growth
growth rates
rates move
move together,
together,
12%
as
as the
the quantity
quantity
M2 growththeory
ratepredicts.
theory predicts.

9%

6%

3%
inflation
rate
0%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
 Seigniorage
• To spend more without raising taxes or
selling bonds, the government can print
money.
• The “revenue” raised from printing money
is called seigniorage
• The inflation tax: Printing money to raise
revenue causes inflation. Inflation is like a
tax on people who hold money.
 Inflation and interest rates
• Nominal interest rate, i, not adjusted for
inflation
• Real interest rate, r, adjusted for inflation: r =
i
• The Fisher equation : i = r + 
• Hence, an increase in  causes an equal
increase in i.
• This one-for-one relationship is called the
Fisher effect.
 Inflation and nominal interest rates
in the U.S., 1955-2006
percent
per year
15
nominal
interest rate
10

0
inflation rate

-5
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
 Two real interest rates

  = real inflation rate

  e = predict inflation rate
• i –  e = ex ante real interest rate
• i –  = ex post real interest rate
 Money demand and
the nominal interest rate
• In the quantity theory of money, the
demand for real money balances depends
only on real income Y.
• Another determinant of money demand:
the nominal interest rate, i.
the opportunity cost of holding money
(instead of bonds or other interest-earning
assets).
• Hence, i   in money demand.
 The Money Demand Function

(M P )  L (i , Y )
d

(M/P )d = real money demand, depends

– negatively on i
i is the opportunity cost of holding money
– positively on Y
higher Y  more spending
 so, need more money
(“L” is used for the money demand function
because money is the most liquid asset.)
 The Money Demand Function

(M P )  L (i , Y )
d

e
 L (r   , Y )
 When people are deciding whether to hold money or bonds,
they don’t know what inflation will turn out to be.
Hence, the nominal interest rate relevant for money demand

is r +  e.

M e
 L (r   , Y )
P
The supply of real Real money
money balances demand
 What determines what

M
 L (r   e , Y )
P
variable how determined (in the long run)
M exogenous (the Fed)
r adjusts to make S = I
Y Y  F (K , L )
M
P adjusts to make  L (i , Y )
P
 How P responds to  e

M e
 L (r   , Y )
P
• For given values of r, Y, and M ,
  e   i (the Fisher effect)
  M P 
d

  P to make  M P  fall
to re-establish eq'm
 Discussion question
• Why is inflation bad?
• What costs does inflation impose on society?
List all the ones you can think of.
 A common misperception
• Common misperception:
inflation reduces real wages
• This is true only in the short run, when
nominal wages are fixed by contracts.
• In the long run, the real wage is determined
by labor supply and the marginal product of
labor, not the price level or inflation rate.
 Average hourly earnings and the CPI,
1964-2006
$20 250

$18

$16 200

$14

CPI (1982-84 = 100)

hourly wage

$12 150

$10

$8 100

$6

$4 CPI (right scale) 50

wage in current dollars
$2 wage in 2006 dollars
$0 0
1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006
 The classical view of inflation
• The classical view:
A change in the price level is merely a
change in the units of measurement.
• So why, then, is inflation a social problem?
 The social costs of inflation
• …fall into two categories:
– 1. costs when inflation is expected
– 2. costs when inflation is different than people
had expected
 The costs of expected inflation:
• 1. Shoeleather cost
• 2. Menu costs
• 3. Relative price distortions
• 4. Unfair tax treatment
• 5. General inconvenience
 The cost of unexpected inflation:
• Arbitrary Redistribution of Wealth
• Many long-term contracts not indexed, but based
on  e.
• If  turns out different from  e, then some gain at
others’ expense.
Example: borrowers & lenders
– If  >  e, then (i  ) < (i   e)
and purchasing power is transferred from lenders to
borrowers.
– If  <  e, then purchasing power is transferred from
borrowers to lenders.
 The cost of unexpected inflation:
• Increased uncertainty
• When inflation is high, it’s more variable and
unpredictable:  turns out different from  e more
often, and the differences tend to be larger
(though not systematically positive or negative)
• Arbitrary redistributions of wealth become more
likely.
• This creates higher uncertainty, making risk averse
people worse off.
 One benefit of inflation
• Nominal wages are rarely reduced, even
when the equilibrium real wage falls. This
hinders labor market clearing.
• Inflation allows the real wages to reach
quilibrium levels without nominal wage
cuts.
• Therefore, moderate inflation improves the
functioning of labor markets.
 Hyperinflation
• def:   50% per month
• All the costs of moderate inflation described
above become HUGE under hyperinflation.
• Money ceases to function as a store of value,
and may not serve its other functions (unit
of account, medium of exchange).
• People may conduct transactions with barter
or a stable foreign currency.
 What causes hyperinflation?
• Hyperinflation is caused by excessive
money supply growth:
• When the central bank prints money, the
price level rises.
• If it prints money rapidly enough, the result
is hyperinflation.
Why governments create hyperinflation
• When a government cannot raise taxes or
sell bonds,
• it must finance spending increases by
printing money.
• In theory, the solution to hyperinflation is
simple: stop printing money.
• In the real world, this requires drastic and
painful fiscal restraint.
 Money and Prices during
Four Hyperinflations
(a) Austria (b) Hungary

Index Index
(Jan. 1921 = 100) (July 1921 = 100)
100,000 100,000
Price level
Price level
10,000 10,000
Money supply
Money supply
1,000 1,000

100 100
1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925

(c) Germany (d) Poland

Index Index
(Jan. 1921 = 100) (Jan. 1921 = 100)
100,000,000,000,000 10,000,000
Price level
1,000,000,000,000 Price level
Money 1,000,000
10,000,000,000
100,000,000 supply 100,000 Money
1,000,000 supply
10,000
10,000
100 1,000
1 100
1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925
 The Classical Dichotomy
•Real variables: Measured in physical units
– quantities and relative prices, for example:
– quantity of output produced
– real wage:
Nominal output
variables: earned per
Measured hour ofunits,
in money worke.g.,
–nominal
real interest
wage:rate: output
Dollars perearned
hour ofinwork.
the future
by lending one unit of output today
 nominal interest rate: Dollars earned in future
by lending one dollar today.
 the price level: The amount of dollars needed
to buy a representative basket of goods.
 The Classical Dichotomy
Classical dichotomy:
the theoretical separation of real and
nominal variables in the classical model,
which implies nominal variables do not
affect real variables.
• Neutrality of money: Changes in the money
supply do not affect real variables.
• In the real world, money is approximately
neutral in the long run.
 Summary
• Money
– the stock of assets used for transactions
– serves as a medium of exchange, store of value, and unit
of account.
– Commodity money has intrinsic value, fiat money does
not.
• Central bank controls the money supply.
• Quantity theory of money assumes velocity is
stable, concludes that the money growth rate
determines the inflation rate.
 Summary
• Nominal interest rate
– equals real interest rate + inflation rate
– the opp. cost of holding money
– Fisher effect: Nominal interest rate moves
one-for-one w/ expected inflation.
• Money demand
– depends only on income in the Quantity Theory
– also depends on the nominal interest rate
– if so, then changes in expected inflation affect
the current price level.
 Summary
• Costs of inflation
• Expected inflation
• Unexpected inflation
• Hyperinflation
• caused by rapid money supply growth when
money printed to finance govt budget deficits
• stopping it requires fiscal reforms to eliminate
govt’s need for printing money
 Summary
• Classical dichotomy
• In classical theory, money is neutral--does
not affect real variables.
• So, we can study how real variables are
determined w/o reference to nominal ones.
• Then, money market eq’m determines price
level and all nominal variables.
• Most economists believe the economy works
this way in the long run.
Thanks