Sound Waves

What Causes Sound?

VIBRATIONS
 Sound Waves

Molecules in the air vibrate about some average position

creating the compressions and rarefactions. We call the
frequency of sound the pitch.
Longitudinal Waves vs. Transverse

– Longitudinal waves follow the same “rules” as the

transverse waves we have dealt with previously.

– However, because cohesive forces between particle

are necessary for transverse wave propagation,
transverse waves only travel on the surface of fluids.

– Where as, longitudinal waves may propagate

through the “bulk” of a fluid, because they rely on
pressure forces, not cohesive forces. (Pressure Gun
DEMO)
 The Fundamentals of
Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
 Frequency
– number of oscillations in
pressure per second
 Wavelength
– distance between each
successive region of high or
low pressure.
The Speed of Sound

 Molecules of the medium collide, allowing the

wave to be transmitted through it.
– The speed of sound depends on elasticity
of the medium.
– The more elastic the medium, the faster
the sound.
– Elasticity – the ability of a solid to return to
its original shape after external forces
have been exerted on it. (16.6 for more)
The Medium

 What if there is no medium?

– A vacuum perhaps…
 Waves in different media
– In what medium will sound travel
fastest… Steel, wood, or you?

What does the speed of sound depend

upon?
The Medium
Visualizing Sound
Ruben’s Tube
2D Pyro Board
Echo Location and Sonar
Loudness

 Loudness - depends on the amplitude

of sound wave
– Again, the amplitude of a wave indicates
its energy. The greater the amplitude, the
greater the energy. (DB Mic. DEMO)

On the graphs to the right

Where is the sound loudest?
16.7 – 16.8 LOUDNESS
 The intensity of a sound is proportional to the square
of the amplitude of the sound wave. (E ≈ I ≈ A2)

 Loudness is measured in decibels (dB) AMPLITUDE

VIBRATING MICROPHONE
LOUDSPEAKER OSCILLOSCOPE
 1 10 100 1000

 The decibel scale is logarithmic, increasing by factors

of 10
Sound Intensity (E≈I≈A2)

 Sound intensity is the sound power as

it passes through a given area
 I = P / Area… (W/m2)
 So... I = P / 4Π r2… for a sphere
Sound Intensity (E≈I≈A2)

 Sound Intensity is not the same as

Sound Intensity Level!!!
 Io = 1 x 10-12 W/m2 (threshold of hearing)
 Intensity Level, β, is a comparison of
two sound intensities (Ratio)
β = (10 dB) log10 (I / Io)
Sound Level (dB’s)

β = (10 dB) log10 (I / Io)

If the intensity, I, exceeds the
reference intensity, Io, by a factor of 4,
the intensity level is???

β = (10 dB) log10 (4)

β = 6 dB
 Can we measure sound intensity? – YES!

Units of Sound Level Intensity: decibels (dB),

which is a logarithmic scale

An increase in 10 decibels of sound level intensity,

or 10 dB, is perceived to be two times louder (21)

Example: Normal conversation is 60 dB,

and a vacuum cleaner is 80 dB

4x’s
Question: How is the change in sound perceived?
(vacuum cleaner compared to normal conversation? (2 2)
 Typical Sound Intensities

Near total silence - 0 dB

A whisper - 15 dB
Normal conversation - 60 dB
A lawnmower - 90 dB
iPod (at full volume) - 100 dB
A car horn - 110 dB
A rock concert or a jet engine - 120 dB
A gunshot or firecracker - 140 dB

Rule: Each 10 dB is ten times the sound intensity!

Therefore, the difference between a gunshot and
total silence is 1014 times the INTENSITY!!

NOTE: The Sound LEVEL would be 214 or 16,384 X’s greater!!

 Other notable sound intensities

85 dB - Raise your voice so that others may hear

(time for hearing protection!!!)

90 dB for eight hours: Damage to your ears

140 dB sound: Immediate damage to ears

120 dB: The F/A-18 Hornet
Noise Abatement: PA Turnpike
Warrendale Plaza Noise Walls
Noise Abatement Example:
The Automobile Muffler

Muffler Animation
Bose Noise Canceling Headphones
Sound Levels

Loudness is measured in Decibels (dB)

(more on page 487)
– Breathing 10 dB
– Normal Speech 60 dB
– Concert 115 dB
– Pain Threshold 120 dB
Sound and Pitch
 Pitch - the frequency of a sound wave
– The human ear is not equally sensitive to all
frequencies (EAR VISUAL & discussion)
 Most people cannot hear frequencies below 20Hz or
above 16,000Hz (Audible ʄ DEMO)
 Most people are most sensitive to frequencies
between 1,000 and 5,000 Hz
 Battle of the Ages

Musical Scale
 Example “middle C” has a frequency of 262 Hz.
 υ =fx

- Where υ is the speed of LIGHT

- (3.0 x 108 m/s)

- f is 102.5 x 106 Hz (102.5 MHz)

 

Natural Frequency &
Resonance
 Natural frequency (Singing Rod DEMO)
– An object’s own set of frequencies
– Depends primarily on elasticity and shape

vs
Resonance
When the frequency of a forced vibration
matches the an object’s natural
frequency, a dramatic increase in
amplitude occurs (PVC Fisher Burner
Demo)
Tacoma Narrows Bridge

 Unfortunately, resonance is not always

a good thing…
 Standing Waves on a String
(Transverse fixed at both ends)

 For a string with length L, Period T, &

frequency ƒ1… Where T = 1/ ƒ1
 And travels there and back, 2L…
 The time necessary is t = 2L / v,
where v is the speed of the wave
 We find 1/ ƒ1 = 2L /v or …
ƒ1 = v / 2L for 1st Harmonic
Transverse and Longitudinal
Standing Waves
– Transverse fixed Both ends
 ƒn = n v/2L (n = 1, 2, 3, 4…)
Transverse and Longitudinal
Standing Waves
– Longitudinal Open at both ends
 ƒn = n v/2L (n = 1, 2, 3, 4…)
Transverse and Longitudinal
Standing Waves
– Longitudinal Open at One end
 ƒn = n v/4L (n = 1, 3, 5, 7…)
Noise & Noise Reduction
 Noise
– sound of any kind (especially
unintelligible or dissonant sound)
 Noise Reduction (SONO) prototype
– LORD Corporation – Aerospace
Engineering
– The use of destructive interference to
eliminate noise
SONO – Noise Cancellation (Prototype)
Doppler Effect

 Doppler Shift - Change in sound

frequency due to the relative motion
of either the source or the detector.
 example: a passing car
DOPPLER EFFECT
 Refers to the change in frequency when there
is relative motion between an observer of
waves and the source of the waves

 Doppler with Sound

Diffraction and Sound

 Bending of sound around a barrier

Diffraction and Sound

PD = Path Difference
(in terms of λ‘s)
Phase Difference and Path-Length Difference

Δθ = 2Π (ΔL)
λ
Where 2Π represents a full wave cycle or wavelength, & L is in terms of λ…
Ex:
Δθ = 2Π (ΔL) = 2Π (4λ - 3λ) = 2 Π rads
λ λ
So… What does that mean… Δθ = 2 Π rads ????
Phase Difference and
Path-Length Difference
Δθ = 2Π (ΔL)
λ
So… What does that mean… Δθ = 2 Π rads ????

When Δθ = 2 Π rads … the waves are shifted by one full λ

So Δθ = 0°… So they are in phase… or constructive

Conditions for Cons. and
Dest. Interferece
 ΔL = n λ (where n = 1, 2, 3, etc…)
– Constructive

 ΔL = (n + 0.5) λ (where n = 1, 2, 3,
etc…)
– Destructive
Single Slit Diffraction

NOTE:
Node b/c cancellation
takes place
Single Slit (1st Minimum)


 D Sinθ = mλ (where m = 1)

 Hence, 1st minimum

 Circular Opening (1st Minimum)

D Sinθ = 1.22 m λ
Double Slit Diffraction
Double Slit Diffraction

 w Sinθ = mλ… Constructive

 w Sinθ = (m + .5) λ… Destructive

Sound Refraction
Sonic BOOM
 An aircraft traveling through the atmosphere
continuously produces air-pressure waves similar
to the water waves caused by a ship's bow.

 When the aircraft

exceeds the speed
of sound, these
pressure waves
combine and form
visible shock waves

 Sub & Super Sonic

Subsonic - slower than the speed of sound

Supersonic - Faster than the speed of sound

speed of object
 Mach Number =
speed of sound
Bow waves
V-shaped pattern made by overlapping
crest
 Shock Waves
 Produced by supersonic aircraft,
three-dimensional cone shaped

 Sonic boom – sharp crack heard

when conical shell of compressed air
that sweeps behind a supersonic
aircraft reaches listeners on the
ground below.
The Physics of Music

 What is the source of sound, again?

VIBRATIONS
 The 3 Types of Musical instruments
All create Vibrations in air
Type Origin
 String Plucked String
 Wind Mouthpiece or Reed
 Percussion Stretched Membrane
For the Music Folks!

Sound Quality
 Fundamental and Harmonics

 Dissonance and Consonance

 Intervals and Octave

– Beat Notes (DEMO)

– Superposition of waves Demo
Harmonic Content & the
Physics of the Guitar
Concepts of Physics
Chloe & Max Kuffer
Three Ways to
Distinguish Sounds Physically
 Intensity
– Interpreted by the human brain as
loudness
 Frequency
– Interpreted by the human brain as pitch
 Harmonic Content
– Interpreted by the human brain as a
component of the timbre
Human Audible Range
The 12 Tone Scale
 For much of “western” music, we limit ourselves to
a choice of only 12 notes, and often only use 8 of
them, to make it less likely that sounds will
combine and be dissonant.
 The piano uses a “12 tone evenly tempered
chromatic scale” with middle C at 261.6 Hz
Music vs. Noise
 Most pieces of music set up a limited
amount of dissonance on purpose, and
then resolve it to a consonant conclusion.
 The (sometimes unconscious) sense of
relief we feel is part of the experience of
listening to music.
 “Noise” contains a great deal of
dissonance and provides no relief!
Timbre: Sound Quality
 The characteristics of a sound which allow the
human to distinguish between sounds of the
same pitch and loudness
 For example why does a flute playing a “C”
sound differently from a guitar playing the
same note?
 There are three contributors to timbre...
– Attack and Decay
– Vibrato
– Harmonic Content (the most important contributor)
Attack and Decay
 Describes how quickly the amplitude of the sound
reaches a maximum and how quickly it dies out
– Ex: a guitar string...quick attack, long gradual decay

– Ex: a cymbal...instant attack, very long, but

initially steep, decay
 Attack and Decay
 How would you describe the attack and
decay of these sounds?
 What musical instruments do you think
they are?

instrument #1

instrument #2

Oboe

Piccolo
 Vibrato/Tremolo
The ordinary definition of vibrato is "periodic changes in the pitch of the
tone", and the term tremolo is used to indicate periodic changes in the
amplitude or loudness of the tone. So vibrato could be called FM
(frequency modulation) and tremolo could be called AM (amplitude
modulation) of the tone.

Vibrato is considered to be a desirable

characteristic of the human voice if it is not
excessive.
Guitar Vibrato/Tremolo
Harmonic Content
For sustained tones, the most important
component of timbre is the harmonic
content...the number and relative intensity of
the “harmonics” present in the sound.
 Almost all sounds, except pure tones, contain
many harmonic frequencies...each frequency is
characterized by a sine wave.
 These harmonics consist of a “fundamental”
frequency and a series of overtone frequencies
 When superpositioned, these harmonics create a
unique “waveform”
Waveform
Harmonic Content

A 300 Hz sound
Harmonic Content

A 500 Hz Sound
Harmonic Content

The blue waveform:

The superposition of a 300 Hz and 500 Hz sound of equal volumes
 Harmonic Content

The blue waveform:

The superposition of a 300 Hz and 500 Hz sound of equal volumes

Any complex waveform can be treated as a combination of simple sine waves

EX: Your voice or any musical instrument has a unique waveform.
Harmonic Content for
Trombone
Playing a fundamental
frequency of 155 Hz
Harmonic Content for
Clarinet
Playing a fundamental
frequency of 156 Hz
Harmonic Content on a
Guitar String
Harmonic Content for
Human Voices