Medical Physics

Contents
 Physics of the Eye and Ear
 Biological Measurement and Imaging
The Eye
 Ciliary muscles relax (lens
flattens)  distant objects
 Ciliary muscles contract
(lens gets fat)  close up
objects
 Refraction at cornea
produces inverted image
on retina
 The Eye
 Dim light: iris dilates to allow light in
- rods operative (see in black & white)

 Bright light: iris contract to avoid light flooding

- cones are sensitive to either red, green & blue light

 Colour seen depends on proportion in which each type of cone

is stimulated
 The Eye
 Nerve ends respond to changes in light intensity
 Eye is constantly scanning so that new nerves are stimulated
 Persistence of vision: limited response of eye due to delay times
in between nerve ending responses

 If the eye is focused on a near object in bright light, distant

objects are visible reasonably clearly. If the eye focuses on the
same object at the same distance in dim light, distant objects
are blurred. The depth of field is reduced
 Defects of Vision & Their Correction
 Convex Lens: light rays converge

Power (Dioptres, D) = 1 / focal length (m)

 Defects of Vision & Their Correction
 Concave Lens: light rays diverge

Power (Dioptres, D) = 1 / focal length (m)

focal length is negative as focus is virtual (virtual image)

 Defects of Vision & Their Correction
 Lens Formula:

1/f = 1/v + 1/u v = image distance, u = object distance

M = v/u M = magnification (no units)

 Myopia (short sightedness): cornea too curved or lens too

powerful  distant object images form in front of retina and blur

 Hypermetropia (long sightedness): eye not powerful enough 

near object images form behind retina and blur
 Physics of the Ear
 Sound: longitudinal wave
 Acoustic impedance: density multiplied by the speed of sound
in the material
- low  conducts sound well
- high  insulates sound well
 Intensity: power per unit area (decreases with distance from
source)
Pinna: funnels sound waves into ear canal
Canal: increases sound intensity
Tympanic membrane vibrates
Ossicles (three small bones) vibrate
Strike oval window of the cochlea
Nerve cells detect sound & convert
it into electrical impulses for
processing by the brain
 Physics of the Ear
 Place Theory: brain determines pitch by noting the place on
the basilar membrane where the message is strongest
 Frequency Theory: frequency of vibrations of the basilar
membrane as a whole is translated into an equivalent
frequency of nerve impulses
 Neurons, however, cannot fire as rapidly as the frequency of
the highest-pitched sound  volley principle: nerve cells fire
in sequence to send a rapid series of impulses to the brain

Intensity is measured on the

decibel scale:
 Physics of the Ear
 Hearing Loss:
- mechanical damage due to a blow on the head
- disease (stop ossicles from moving)
- exposure to excessive noise (tinnitus)
- ageing
 Nerve Impulses
 Electrical Signals in the Body: carried by neurones
- cells have membrane potential: extra K+ ions inside, Na+ ions outside 
potential difference = 70mV
 When membrane is stimulated:
- becomes permeable to Na+ions which
diffuse due to the negative charge
 Potential rises initially to 0 mV (depolarisation)
& then to +30 mV (reverse polarisation)
 Membrane becomes impermeable to Na+
ions & they are trapped within nerve cell
 K+ions diffuse out of the membrane which restores the potential
(repolarisation)
 Process takes about 2 ms
 Then the K+ions are pumped out, process takes about 50 ms
 Nerve Impulses
 Pumps materials as a fluid quickly around body

 Double circulatory system:

 Nervous Impulses
Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood enters blood enters
through the through the
vena cava into pulmonary veins
the right atrium into the left
atrium

It’s then It’s then pumped

pumped through through a valve
a valve into the into the left
right ventricle ventricle
chamber

And then up through the pulmonary And then through the aortic
valve into the pulmonary artery valve and out of the aorta to
towards the lungs the rest of the body
 Nerve Impulses
Arteries carry blood away from Capillaries have thin walls to
the heart at high pressure in allow glucose and oxygen to
thick walled lumen diffuse through

Veins carry low pressure blood back to the heart.

Veins have thinner walls and valves to prevent
backflow of blood
Nerve Impulses
 Nerve Impulses
 Carry blood at high pressure

 Outermost layer is composed of connective tissue

 Media – smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue
 Intima – in direct contact with flow of blood
 Lumen – cavity in which blood flows
 Nerve Impulses
 Most exchange of nutrients and gases takes place here
 Small diameter, large surface area for diffusion

 Lungs  carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen

 Tissues  O2, CO2, nutrients and wastes are exchanged
 Kidneys  wastes are released to be eliminated from body
 Intestine  nutrients are picked up, wastes are released
 Nerve Impulses
 Electrocardiogram (ECG): allows doctors to look at the electrical
behaviour of the heart to diagnose problems
- Body fluids transmit some of the electrical activity to the
surface
- Signals are reduced in size, with amplitudes of about 1mV
- Suitable ECG output: patient must be relaxed so nerve cell
activity does not disrupt data of electrical activity of heart

P wave: depolarisation & contraction

of the atria
QRS wave: depolarisation &
contraction of the ventricles
T wave: re-polarisation and
relaxation of the ventricles
 Ultrasound
 Ultrasound: sounds above the audible frequency range for
humans

 Uses: non-invasive imaging, used to detect distances, depths

and for medical purposes

 Generation & Detection: ultrasound probe (transducer)

generates & detects ultrasound waves, usually by use of a
piezoelectric transducer. A voltage is induced when a quartz
crystal is stretched or compressed, which can be large enough
to create a spark. If a voltage is applied to a piezoelectric
material, it changes shape. For an alternating voltage, the
crystal will vibrate. Maximum energy transfer occurs when the
crystal is in resonance
 Ultrasound
 Ultrasound is often used to detect functions inside the body:
 Ultrasound is:
 longitudinal
 passed through a gel on the skin to prevent reflection
 reflected as it passes from one tissue to another (velocity
change)
 absorbed by tissue material
 absorbed & reflected by many percentages depending on the
tissue type

 This determines an overall image when the wave is connected

to a receiver
 Ultrasound
 Resolution: distinction of image using ultrasound e.g. what
distance in the body does a pixel on the monitor show?

 higher frequency = better resolution

 Axial: use short pulses; determined resolution in direction of beam

 Lateral: use narrow pulses; determined by beam width

 A-scan: amplitude modulated display

 B-scan: brightness modulated display

 Ultrasound
 Real time B-scan: moving images. Up to 100 probes are used
 Movement of blood: through Doppler effect

Advantages:
 low frequency (low energy) beam
 non-invasive & no discomfort
 more effective than X-ray for images of soft tissue
 portable equipment

Disadvantages:
 skilful operator & image requires skilful interpretation
 image resolution is very easily reduced
 Medical Optics
 Optical fibre: glass rod that conducts light by TIR
 Light travels down a core surrounded by glass cladding: slightly
lower refractive index (n)  prevents loss of light energy if the
core passes into material of a higher refractive index

 Snell’s Law: n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

 Critical Angle: sinθc = n2/n1
 Medical Optics
 If the fibre is bent sharply  significant loss of light
- radius of bend must be 20x diameter to prevent such losses

sheath
optical fibre

fibre optic light guide

 Fibre diameter: 10μm

 Endoscope of 3mm diameter would have approx. 40 000 fibres
 The more fibres, the greater the resolution
 Medical Physics
 Uses of Endoscopy:
 cut out diseased tissue
 take a biopsy
 seal a site of bleeding with heat
 remove an obstructive object
 keyhole surgery
 Medical Physics
 LASER: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

- When a photon of the right wavelength hits an excited atom

of certain materials, it can stimulate the emission of a second
photon of exactly the same wavelength and phase as the first
- If enough atoms are excited, the photons can stimulate
further emissions of further photons, all travelling in the same
direction.
- At one end of the material there is a
mirror that totally reflects the photons,
while at the other is a mirror that partially
reflects the photons
 Medical Physics
 Properties of lasers:
- monochromatic (single colour)
- coherent (in phase)
- produce continuous light (pulses are caused by shutters)
- absorbed by skin: increased by melanin
- used in fibre optics to help guide light beam
- CO2 lasers  cut away delicate tissue e.g. brain

 Safety issues:
- severe & deep burns caused by beams
- beam shined into eye will cause blindness
 X-Rays
 Uses
- identify bone fractures
- identify tooth decay
- identify tumours & disease in soft tissue
- treatment of tumours by radiotherapy

 X-rays: photons of em radiation produced when a target of heavy

metal is struck by electrons travelling at high speed. Approx. 1% of
the electrons produce an X-ray photon  the rest is lost in heating
up the target
 Production of X-rays:
- decrease velocity of electron or
- remove an inner electron. Electrons replace the inner electron &
photons are emitted as the electrons undergo transitions from
different energy levels
 X-Rays
 Maximum energy: all electron’s energy is converted into the
photon’s energy
- Kinetic energy = photon energy
- Kinetic energy = charge of electron × voltage

eV = hf h = Planck’s constant

and… c = fλ

so… eV = hc/λ
 X-Rays
 Generation of X-rays:
- rotating anode tube  evacuated glass tube, cooled in oil with
a lead surround

- Hot filament boils off electrons which are accelerated by

anode voltage
- hit target; most are released as heat, but few become X-ray
- to prevent melting, target spins on a motor at 3000rpm
 X-Rays
 Controlling the X-rays:
- cannot be focused
- sharp images are produced by small sources (point source)
 Absorption of X-rays: occurs when x-rays pass through
materials due to energy loss by…
- Scattering: X-ray photons are reradiated as lower energy
photons
- Ejection: X-rays are ejected (photoelectric effect). Photons of
visible light are emitted as atom comes out of the excited state
- Compton Scattering: electron & lower energy X-ray photon are
emitted
- Pair Production: V. high energy photon interacts with atom’s
nucleus.
Electron & positron emerge, losing energy by ionisation until the
positron is annihilated by an electron  generates 2 identical
photons
 X-Rays
 Dangers of X-rays:
- water ionises to produce free radicals which produce H2O2
- enzymes & DNA are damaged
- parts of cells are damaged
- cell division is damaged ( mutations)
- tissue & organ damage
- life expectancy shortens
- mutations cause gene alterations in populations

 Attenuation of X-rays:
- inverse square law: intensity reduces
with distance

I = I0e-μx
 X-Rays
 Uses of X-rays:
- diagnosis
- treatment of cancers (radiotherapy) with high energy X-rays

 X-ray workers…
1) wear a film badge to check the amount of radiation they get
2) wear lead aprons while the machine is in use
3) verify that the machine is in an enclosed room and the
controls are in a separate room
4) ensure that that there is no entry into the X-ray room while
the machine is in use
 Summary
 The Eye
 Defects of Vision & Their Correction
 Physics of the Ear
 Nervous Impulses
 Ultrasound
 Medical Physics
 X-Rays