NEUROANATOMY OF THE VISUAL

SYSTEM
 THE RETINA
• is the innermost layer of the eye.
• derived from the optic vesicle of the
diencephalon.
• contains efferent fibers that give rise to the
optic nerve, which is actually a fiber tract of
the diencephalon.
• is sensitive to wavelengths from 400 nm to
700 nm.
 Structures of the ocular fundus
1. Optic disk (optic papilla)
 is located 3.5 mm nasal to the fovea centralis,contains unmyelinated axons from the
ganglion cell layer of the retina.
 is the blind spot (contains no rods or cones), contains a central cup, a peripheral disk
margin, and retinal vessels.
2. Macula lutea : is a yellow-pigmented area that surrounds the fovea centralis.
3. Fovea centrali
 is located within the macula lutea, 2.5 disk diameters temporal to the optic disk,
contains only cones and is the site of highest visual acuity.
 is avascular and receives nutrients by diffusion via the choriocapillaris, subserves color
or day (photopic) vision.
4. Retinal blood supply
1. is supplied by the choriocapillaris of the choroid layer and the central retinal artery, a
branch of the ophthalmic artery.
2. occlusion of the central retinal artery results in blindnes
 Cells of the Retina
1. Rods and cones -are first-order receptor cells that respond directly to light
stimulation. -generate only graded potentials. -utilize glutamate as
neurotransmitter.
1. a. Rods (100 million) : contain rhodopsin (visual purple) and are sensitive to low
inten sity light. Subserve night (scotopic) vision.
2. b. Cones (7 million) : contain the photopigment iodopsin. Operate only at high
illumination levels. Concentrated in the fovea centralis and responsible for day
vision, color vision, and high visual acuity.
2. Bipolar neurons :are second-order neurons that relay stimuli from the rods
and cones to the ganglion cells.
3. Ganglion cells: -are third-order neurons that form the optic nerve. Project
directly to the hypothalamus, superior colliculus, pretectal nucleus, and LGB.
4. Interneurons
1. Horizontal cells -interconnect photoreceptors and bipolar cells. -inhibit neighboring
photoreceptors (lateral inhibition).
2. Amacrine cells -receive input from bipolar cells and project to ganglion cells.
Mediate lateral interactions at the bipolar-ganglion cell synapse.
Meridional Divisions of the Retina
 Concentric Divisions of the Retina
1. Macular area
 is a small area surrounding the fovea centralis that serves central vision
(high visual acuity).
 projects to the posterior part of the visual cortex.
2. Paramacular area
 is a large area surrounding the macular area that contains predomi-
nantly rods.
 projects to the visual cortex anterior to the macular representation.
3. Monoular area
 represents the peripheral monocular field.
 projects to the visual cortex anterior to the paramacular representation.
 lesions result in a contralateral crescentic defect.
 VISUAL PATHWAY
1. Ganglion cells
2. Optic nerve (CN II)
3. Optic chiasm
4. Optic tract
5. Lateral Geniculate Body
6. Geniculocalcarine tract (visual radiation)
7. Visual cortex
 Pupillary Light Reflexes and Pathway
A. Pupillary light reflexes: result when light shined into one eye
causes both pupils to constrict.
A. Direct pupillary light reflex -is the response in the stimulated eye.
B. Consensual pupillary light reflex -is the response in the unstimulated
eye.
B. Pupillary light reflex pathway : consists of the following
structures:
1. Ganglion cells of the retina -project bilaterally to the pretectal nuclei.
2. Pretectal nucleus of the midbrain -projects crossed (in the posterior
commissure) and uncrossed fibers to the rostral Edinger-Westphal nucleus.
3. Edinger-Westphal nucleus of the midbrain : gives rise to preganglionic
parasympathetic fibers, which exit the midbrain with the oculomotor
nerve, and synapse with postganglionic parasympathetic neurons of the
ciliary ganglion.
4. 4. Ciliary ganglion of the orbit -gives rise to postganglionic parasympathetic
fibers, which innervate the sphincter muscle of the iris.
 Pupillary Dilatation Pathway
• is mediated by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system.
• interruption at any level results in Homer's syndrome.
• consists of the following structures:
1. Hypothalamus : hypothalamic neurons project directly to the cfliospinal
center (T1-T2) of the intermediolateral cell column (Figure 17-4).
2. Ciliospinal center of the spinal cord : projects pregang]ionic sympathetic
fibers via the sympathetic trunk to the superior cervical ganglion.
3. Superior cervical ganglion: -projects postganglionic sympathetic fibers
via the perivascular plexus of the carotid system to the dilator muscle of
the iris and to the palpebral muscles of Mtiller. Postganglionic
sympathetic fibers pass through the cavernous sinus and enter the orbit
via the superior orbital fissure.
 The Convergence-Accommodation Reaction
• Is essential for visual fixation and acuity at close range.
• Initiated by conscious visual fixation on a near object or by a
blurred retinal image.
• Reflex changes :
1. Convergence -occurs as the eyes focus on a near point. Mediated
by medial recti innervation via the oculomotor nerve (CN III).
2. Accommodation
 is the adjustment of the eyes for various distances.
 occurs as contraction of the ciliary muscle results in a thickening of the
lens and an increase in refractive power.
 is mediated by the caudal Edinger-Westphal nucleus via CN III.
3. Pupillary constriction : results in an increase in depth of field and
depth of focus, mediated by the rostral Edinger-Westphal nucleus
via CN III.
The convergence-accommodation pathway

• 1. Visual cortex (area 17) : projects to the visual

association cortex (area 19).
• 2. Visual association cortex (area 19) :projects via
the corticotectal tract to the pretectal area of the
mid-brain.
• 3. Pretectal area -projects to Perlia's nucleus.
• 4. Perlia's nucleus of the oculomotor complex, CN III
-projects to the rostral and caudal Edinger-Westphal
nuclei and the medial rectus subnuclei of CN III.
Superior colliculus of the midbrain
• receives input from the retina and the visual
cortex, primarily from the contralateral visual
field. -plays a role in head and eye movements
used to locate and follow visual stimuli.
• unilateral lesions result in contralateral
neglect of visual stimuli (deficits in tracking
moving objects).