Linear Algebra. Vector Calculus: Part B p1

PART
B
Linear Algebra.
Vector Calculus
Part B p1 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 9
Vector Differential Calculus.
Grad, Div, Curl
Chapter 9 p2 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1
9.1 Vectors
Vectors in
in 2-Space
2-Space and
and
3-Space
3-Space
Section 9.1 p3 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

9.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space
InInengineering,
engineering,physics,
physics,mathematics,
mathematics,and andother
otherareas
areaswe
we
encounter
encountertwo twokinds
kindsofofquantities.
quantities.TheyTheyarearescalars
scalarsand
and
vectors.
vectors.
AAscalar
scalarisisaaquantity
quantitythat
thatisisdetermined
determinedby byits
itsmagnitude.
magnitude.
ItIttakes
takesononaanumerical
numericalvalue,
value,i.e.,
i.e.,aanumber.
number.Examples
Examplesof of
scalars
scalarsare
aretime,
time,temperature,
temperature,length,
length,distance,
distance,speed,
speed,
density,
density,energy,
energy,andandvoltage.
voltage.
InIncontrast,
contrast,aavector
vectorisisaaquantity
quantitythatthathas
hasboth
bothmagnitude
magnitude
and
anddirection.
direction.WeWecancansay
saythat
thataavector
vectorisisan
anarrow
arrowororaa
directed
directedline
linesegment.
segment.ForForexample,
example,aavelocity
velocityvector
vectorhas
has
length
lengthor ormagnitude,
magnitude,which
whichisisspeed,
speed,and
anddirection,
direction,which
which
indicates
indicatesthethedirection
directionofofmotion.
motion.

Typical
Typicalexamples
examplesof ofvectors
vectorsare
aredisplacement,
displacement,velocity,
velocity,and
and
force,
force,see
seeFig.
Fig.164
164as
asan
anillustration.
illustration.
Fig. 164. Force and velocity

Fig. 164. Force and velocity
More
Moreformally,
formally,we
wehave
havethe
thefollowing.
following.We Wedenote
denotevectors
vectors
by
bylowercase
lowercaseboldface
boldfaceletters
lettersa,a,b,
b,v,v,etc.
etc.In
Inhandwriting

handwriting you
you

may a (in place of a), b , etc.
mayuse
usearrows,
arrows,for
forinstance,
instance,
AAvector
vector(arrow)
(arrow)hashasaatail,
tail,called
calleditsitsinitial
initialpoint,
point,andandaa
tip,
tip,called
calledits
itsterminal
terminalpoint.
point.This
Thisisismotivated
motivatedin inthe
the
translation
translation(displacement
(displacementwithout
withoutrotation)
rotation)of ofthe
thetriangle
triangle
ininFig.
Fig.165,
165,where
wherethetheinitial
initialpoint
pointPPof ofthe
thevector
vectoraaisisthe
the
original
originalposition
positionof ofaapoint,
point,and
andthetheterminal
terminalpoint
pointQQisisthe
the
terminal
terminalposition
positionof ofthat
thatpoint,
point,its
itsposition
positionafter
afterthe
the
translation.
translation.The
Thelength
lengthof ofthe
thearrow
arrowequals
equalsthe
thedistance
distance
between
betweenPPand andQ.Q.This
Thisisiscalled
calledthethelength
length(or(ormagnitude)
magnitude)of of
the
thevector
vectoraaand
andisisdenoted
denotedby by|a|.
|a|.Another
Anothername namefor forlength
length
isisnorm
norm(or(orEuclidean
Euclideannorm).
norm).
AAvector
vectorofoflength
length11isiscalled
calledaaunit
unitvector.
vector.

Fig. 165. Translation

Fig. 165. Translation

Definition
Equality
EqualityofofVectors
Vectors
Two
Twovectors
vectorsaaand
andbbare areequal,
equal,written
writtenaa==b,
b,ififthey
theyhave
havethe
the
same
samelength
lengthand
andthe
thesame
samedirection
direction[as
[asexplained
explainedin inFig.
Fig.166;
166;
in
inparticular,
particular,note
note(B)].
(B)].Hence
Henceaavector
vectorcan
canbe
bearbitrarily
arbitrarily
translated;
translated;that
thatis,
is,its
itsinitial
initialpoint
pointcan
canbe
bechosen
chosenarbitrarily.
arbitrarily.
Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors

Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors

Components of a Vector
We
Wechoose
choosean anxyz
xyzCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemin inspace
space
(Fig.
(Fig.167),
167),that
thatis,
is,aausual
usualrectangular
rectangularcoordinate
coordinatesystem
system
with
withthethesame
samescale
scaleof ofmeasurement
measurementon onthe
thethree
threemutually
mutually
perpendicular
perpendicularcoordinate
coordinateaxes. axes.Let
Letaabe
beaagiven
givenvector
vectorwith with
initial
initialpoint
pointP:
P:(x
(x1,1,yy1,1,zz1)1)and
andterminal
terminalpoint
pointQ:
Q:(x(x2,2,yy2,2,zz2).
2).
Then
Thenthe thethree
threecoordinate
coordinatedifferencesdifferences
(1)
(1) aa1 ==xx2 −−xx1, ,aa2 ==yy2 −−yy1, ,aa3 ==zz2 −−zz1
1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 1
are
arecalled
calledthe
thecomponents
componentsof ofthe
thevector
vectoraawith withrespect
respectto to
that
thatcoordinate
coordinatesystem,
system,and andwe wewrite
writesimplysimplyaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3].
3].
See
SeeFig.
Fig.168.
168.
Components of a Vector (continued)

The
Thelength
length|a|
|a|of
ofaacan
cannow
nowreadily
readilybe
beexpressed
expressedin
interms
terms
of
ofcomponents
componentsbecause
becausefrom
from(1)
(1)and
andthe
thePythagorean
Pythagorean
theorem
theoremwewehave
have
(2)
(2) a  a1
2
 a 2
2
 a 2
3
.
AACartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystemsystembeing beinggiven,
given,thetheposition
position
vector
vectorrrof ofaapoint
pointA: A:(x,
(x,y,y,z)z)isisthethevector
vectorwithwiththe
theorigin
origin
(0,
(0,0,0,0)0)as
asthe
theinitial
initialpoint
pointand andAAas asthe
theterminal
terminalpoint
point(see
(see
Fig.
Fig.169).
169).Thus
Thusin incomponents,
components,rr==[x, [x,y,y,z].
z].This
Thiscan
canbe
beseen
seen
directly
directlyfromfrom(1)(1)with
withxx1 ==yy1 ==zz1 ==0.0.
1 1 1
(See next slide for Figures 167, 168 and 169.)

(See next slide for Figures 167, 168 and 169.)
Components of a Vector (continued)
Fig. 167. Cartesian Fig. 168. Components Fig. 169. Position vector r
Fig. 167. Cartesian Fig. 168. Components Fig. 169. Position vector r
coordinate system of a vector of a point A: (x, y, z)
coordinate system of a vector of a point A: (x, y, z)

Theorem 1
Vectors
Vectorsas asOrdered
OrderedTriples
Triplesof ofReal
RealNumbers
Numbers
AAfixed
fixedCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systembeing
beinggiven,
given,each
eachvector
vectorisis
uniquely
uniquelydetermineddeterminedby byits
itsordered
orderedtriple
tripleofofcorresponding
corresponding
components.
components.Conversely,Conversely,totoeach
eachordered
orderedtriple
tripleofofreal
realnumbers
numbers
(a(a1, ,aa2, ,aa3))there
therecorresponds
corresponds precisely
precisely one
onevector
vector aa==[a[a1, ,aa2, ,aa3],],
1 2 3 1 2 3
with
with(0, (0,0,0,0) 0)corresponding
correspondingtotothethezero
zerovector
vector0,0,which
whichhas has
length
length00and andnonodirection.
direction.
Hence
Henceaavector vectorequation
equationaa==bbisisequivalent
equivalenttotothethethree
three
equations
equationsaa1 ==bb1, ,aa2 ==bb2, ,aa3 ==bb3 for
forthe
thecomponents.
components.
1 1 2 2 3 3

Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

Definition
Addition
Additionof ofVectors
Vectors
The
Thesum
sumaa++bbof oftwotwovectors
vectorsaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]
and
andbb==[b[b1,1,bb2,2,bb3]3]isisobtained
obtainedbybyadding
addingthe the
corresponding
correspondingcomponents,components,
(3)
(3) aa++bb==[a[a1 1++bb1,1,aa2 2++bb2,2,aa3 3++bb3].
3].
Geometrically,
Geometrically,place
placethe thevectors
vectorsas asin inFig.
Fig.
170
170(the
(theinitial
initialpoint
pointof ofbbatatthe theterminal
terminal
point
pointofofa);
a);then
thenaa++bbisisthe thevector
vectordrawn drawn Fig. 170. Vector
Fig. 170. Vector
from
fromthe
theinitial
initialpoint
pointof ofaato tothetheterminal
terminal addition
addition
point
pointofofb.
b.
For
Forforces,
forces,this
thisaddition
additionisisthe
theparallelogram
parallelogramlaw
lawby
bywhich
which
we
weobtain
obtainthe
theresultant
resultantof
oftwo
twoforces
forcesin
inmechanics.
mechanics.See
SeeFig.
Fig.
171.
171.
Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Figure
Figure172
172(next slide) shows (for the plane) that the “algebraic”
(next slide) shows (for the plane) that the “algebraic”
way
wayand
andthe
the“geometric
“geometricway”way”ofofvector
vectoraddition
additiongive
givethe
the
same
samevector.
vector.
Basic
BasicProperties
Propertiesof ofVector
VectorAddition.
Addition.Familiar
Familiarlaws
lawsfor forreal
real
numbers
numbersgivegiveimmediately
immediately
(a) ab  ba (Commutativity )
(b) ( u  v )  w  u  ( v  w) (Associativity )
(4)
(4) (c) a0  0a a
(d) a  ( a )  0.
Properties
Properties(a)
(a)and
and(b) (b)are
areverified
verifiedgeometrically
geometricallyininFigs.
Figs.173
173
and
and174
174(next slide) . Furthermore, −a denotes the vector having
(next slide) . Furthermore, −a denotes the vector having
the
thelength
length|a|
|a|andandthe thedirection
directionopposite
oppositeto
tothat
thatofofa.a.
Fig. 172. Vector addition Fig. 173. Cummutativity Fig. 174. Associativity
Fig. 172. Vector addition Fig. 173. Cummutativity Fig. 174. Associativity
of vector addition of vector addition
of vector addition of vector addition

In
In(4b)
(4b)we
wemay
maysimply
simplywrite
writeuu++vv++w,
w,and
andsimilarly
similarlyfor
forsums
sums
of
ofmore
morethan
thanthree
threevectors.
vectors.Instead
Insteadof
ofaa++aawe
wealso
alsowrite
write2a,
2a,
and
andsosoon.
on.This
This(and
(andthe
thenotation
notation−a
−aused
usedjust
justbefore)
before)
motivates
motivatesdefining
definingthe
thesecond
secondalgebraic
algebraicoperation
operationfor
forvectors
vectors
as
asfollows.
follows.

Definition
Scalar
ScalarMultiplication
Multiplication(Multiplication
(Multiplicationby
byaa
Number)
Number)
The
Theproduct
productca caofofany
anyvector
vectoraa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]
and
andanyanyscalar
scalarcc(real
(realnumber
numberc)c)isisthe the
vector
vectorobtained
obtainedby bymultiplying
multiplyingeach each
component
componentof ofaabybyc,c,
(5)
(5) ca
ca==[ca
[ca1,1,ca
ca2,2,ca
ca3]3]
Geometrically,
Geometrically,ififaa≠≠0,0,then thenca cawith
withcc>>00 Fig. 175. Scalar
has Fig. 175. Scalar
hasthe
thedirection
directionof ofaaand
andwith withcc<<00the the multiplication
multiplication
direction [multiplication of
directionopposite
oppositeto toa.a.InInanyanycase,case,the
the [multiplication of
length vectors by scalars
lengthof ofca
caisis|ca|
|ca|==|c||a|
|c||a|and andca ca==00ifif vectors by scalars
(numbers)]
aa==00ororcc==00(or
(orboth).
both).(See(SeeFig. Fig.175.)
175.) (numbers)]

Basic
BasicProperties
Propertiesof ofScalar
ScalarMultiplication.
Multiplication.From
Fromthe
the
definitions
definitionswe
weobtain
obtaindirectly
directly
(a) c(a  b)  ca  cb
(b) (c  k )a  ca  ka
(6)
(6) (c) c( ka )  ( ck )a (written cka)
(d) 1a  a.

You
Youmay
mayprove
provethat
that(4)
(4)and
and(6)
(6)imply
implyfor
forany
anyvector
vectoraa
(a) 0a  0
(7)
(7) (b) ( 1)a  a
Instead
Insteadof
ofbb++(−a)
(−a)we
wesimply
simplywrite
writebb−−aa(Fig.
(Fig.176).
176).
Fig. 176. Difference of vectors

Fig. 176. Difference of vectors
Unit
UnitVectors
Vectorsi,i,j,j,k.
k.Besides
Besidesaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]another
anotherpopular
popular
way
wayofofwriting
writingvectors
vectorsisis
(8)
(8) aa==aa1ii++aa2jj++aa3k.
1 2 3k.
In
Inthis
thisrepresentation,
representation,i,i,j,j,kkare arethe
theunit
unitvectors
vectorsin
inthe
the
positive
positivedirections
directionsof ofthe
theaxes
axesof ofaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinate
system
system(Fig.
(Fig.177).
177).Hence,
Hence,in incomponents,
components,
(9)
(9) ii==[1,[1,0,0,0],
0], jj==[0,
[0,1,1,0],
0], kk==[0,
[0,0,0,1]
1]
and
andthe
theright
rightside
sideof
of(8)
(8)isisaasum
sumofofthree
threevectors
vectorsparallel
parallelto
to
the
thethree
threeaxes.
axes.

Fig. 177. The unit vectors i, j, k and the representation (8)

Fig. 177. The unit vectors i, j, k and the representation (8)
All
Allthe
thevectors
vectorsaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]==aa1i1i++aa2j2j++aa3kk(with
(with real
real
3
numbers
numbers as components) form the real vector space R3with
as components) form the real vector space R 3
with
the
thetwo
twoalgebraic
algebraicoperations
operationsof ofvector
vector addition
addition and
and scalar
scalar
multiplication
multiplicationas asjust
justdefined.
defined.RR3has
3
hasdimension
dimension 3.3.The
The triple
triple
of
ofvectors
vectorsi,i,j,j,kkisiscalled
calledaastandard
standardbasis basisof ofRR.3.Given
3
Givenaa
Cartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem,
system,the therepresentation
representation(8) (8)ofofaagiven
given
vector
vectorisisunique.
unique.
9.2
9.2 Inner
Inner Product
Product (Dot
(Dot Product)
Product)

9.2 Inner Product (Dot Product)
Orthogonality
The
Theinner
innerproduct
productorordot
dotproduct
productcancanbebemotivated
motivatedby by
calculating
calculatingwork
workdone
donebybyaaconstant
constantforce,
force,determining
determining
components
componentsof offorces,
forces,or
orother
otherapplications.
applications.ItItinvolves
involvesthe
the
length
lengthofofvectors
vectorsand
andthe
theangle
anglebetween
betweenthem.
them.TheTheinner
inner
product
productisisaakind
kindof
ofmultiplication
multiplicationof oftwo
twovectors,
vectors,defined
defined
in
insuch
suchaaway
waythat
thatthe
theoutcome
outcomeisisaascalar.
scalar.Indeed,
Indeed,another
another
term
termfor
forinner
innerproduct
productisisscalar
scalarproduct,
product,aaterm
termwe weshall
shallnot
not
use
usehere.
here.The
Thedefinition
definitionofofthe
theinner
innerproduct
productisisasasfollows.
follows.

Definition
Inner
InnerProduct
Product(Dot(DotProduct)
Product)of ofVectors
Vectors
The
Theinner
innerproduct
productorordot productaa••bb(read
dotproduct (read“a“adot
dotb”)
b”)of
of
two
twovectors
vectorsaaand
andbbisisthe
theproduct
productof oftheir
theirlengths
lengthstimes
timesthe
the
cosine
cosineof
oftheir
theirangle
angle(see
(seeFig.
Fig.178),
178),
a  b  a b cos  if a  0, b  0
(1)
(1) a b0 if a  0 , b  0.
The
Theangle
angleγ,γ,00≤≤γγ≤≤π,
π,between
betweenaaand andbbisismeasured
measuredwhenwhen
the
theinitial
initialpoints
pointsofofthe
thevectors
vectorscoincide,
coincide,as asin
inFig.
Fig.178.
178.In
In
components,
components,aa==[a[a1, ,aa2, ,aa3],],bb==[b[b1, ,bb2, ,bb3],],and
and
1 2 3 1 2 3
(2)
(2) aa••bb==aa1bb1 ++aa2bb2 ++aa3bb3. .
1 1 2 2 3 3

The
Thesecond
secondline
linein
in(1)
(1)isisneeded
neededbecause
becauseγγisisundefined
undefined
when
whenaa==00or
orbb==0.0.
Fig. 178. Angle between vectors and value of inner product

Fig. 178. Angle between vectors and value of inner product

Orthogonality.
Orthogonality.
Since
Sincethe
thecosine
cosinein in(1)
(1)may
maybe bepositive,
positive,0,0,orornegative,
negative,soso
may
maybe bethe
theinner
innerproduct
product(Fig.
(Fig.178,
178,previous slide). The case
previous slide). The case
that
thatthe
theinner
innerproduct
productisiszero
zeroisisof
ofparticular
particularpractical
practical
interest
interestand
andsuggests
suggeststhethefollowing
followingconcept.
concept.
AAvector
vectoraaisiscalled
calledorthogonal
orthogonalto vectorbbififaa••bb==0.0.
toaavector
Then
Thenbbisisalso
alsoorthogonal
orthogonalto toa,a,and
andwe wecall
callaaand
andbb
orthogonal
orthogonalvectors.
vectors.Clearly,
Clearly,this
thishappens
happensfor fornonzero
nonzero
vectors
vectorsififand
andonly
onlyififcos
cosγγ==0;0;thus
thusγγ==π/2π/2(90°).
(90°).This
Thisproves
proves
the
theimportant
importantfollowing
followingtheorem.
theorem.

Theorem 1
Orthogonality
OrthogonalityCriterion
Criterion
The
Theinner
innerproduct
productofoftwo
twononzero
nonzerovectors
vectorsisis00ififand
andonly
onlyififthese
these
vectors
vectorsare
areperpendicular.
perpendicular.

Length
Lengthand
andAngle.
Angle.
Equation (1) with b = a gives a •
Equation (1) with b = a gives a • b = |a|.2.Hence
b = |a|2
Hence
(3)
(3) a  a a
From
From(3)
(3)and
and(1)
(1)we
weobtain
obtainfor
forthe
theangle
anglebetween
betweentwo
two
nonzero
nonzerovectors
vectors
a b a b
(4) cos    .
(4) a b a a b b

From
Fromthe thedefinition
definitionwe
wesee
seethat
thatthe
theinner
innerproduct
producthas
hasthe
the
following
followingproperties.
properties.For
Forany
anyvectors
vectorsa,a,b,
b,ccand
andscalars
scalars
qq1, ,qq2, ,
1 2
(a) (q1a  q1b)  c  q1a  c  q2 b  c ( Linearity )
(b) a bb a (Symmetry )
(5)
(5)
a a0 
(c)  ( Positive  definiteness).
a  a  0 if and only if a  0 

Hence
Hencedot
dotmultiplication
multiplicationisiscommutative
commutativeas asshown
shownby by(5b).
(5b).
Furthermore,
Furthermore,ititisisdistributive
distributivewith
withrespect
respecttotovector
vectoraddition.
addition.
This
Thisfollows
followsfrom
from(5a)(5a)with
withqq1 ==11and
andqq2 ==1:1:
1 2
(5a*)
(5a*) (a b)••cc==aa••cc++bb••cc
(a++b) (Distributivity).
(Distributivity).
Furthermore,
Furthermore,from
from(1) (1)and
and|cos
|cosγ|γ|≤≤11we
wesee
seethat
that
(6)
(6) |a••b|
|a b|≤≤|a||b|
|a||b| (Cauchy–Schwarz
(Cauchy–Schwarzinequality).
inequality).

Using thisand
Usingthis and(3),
(3),you
youmay
mayprove
prove(see
(seeProb.
Prob.16)
16)
(7)
(7) |a
|a++b|
b|≤≤|a|
|a|++|b|
|b| (Triangle
(Triangleinequality).
inequality).
Geometrically,
Geometrically,(7)
(7)with
with<<says
saysthat
thatone
oneside
sideofofaatriangle
trianglemust
mustbebe
shorter
shorterthan
thanthe
theother
othertwo
twosides
sidestogether;
together;this
thismotivates
motivatesthethename
name
of
of(7).
(7).
AAsimple
simpledirect
directcalculation
calculationwith
withinner
innerproducts
productsshowsshowsthat
that
(8) |a + b| 2
2+ |a − b| 2= 2(|a| 2+ |b| )2 (Parallelogram equality).
2 2 2
(8) |a + b| + |a − b| = 2(|a| + |b| ) (Parallelogram equality).

Applications of Inner Products

EXAMPLE 2
Work Done by a Force Expressed as an Inner Product
This
Thisisisaamajor
majorapplication.
application.ItItconcerns
concernsaabody
bodyon
onwhich
whichaa
constant
constantforce
forceppacts.
acts.(For
(Foraavariable
variableforce,
force,see
seeSec.
Sec.10.1.)
10.1.)Let
Let
the
thebody
bodybe begiven
givenaadisplacement
displacementd. d.Then
Thenthe
thework
workdone
done
by
byppininthe
thedisplacement
displacementisisdefined
definedas as
(9)
(9) WW==|p||d|
|p||d|coscosαα==pp••d,d,
that
thatis,
is,magnitude
magnitude|p|of|p|ofthe
theforce
forcetimes
timeslength
length|d|
|d|ofofthe
the
displacement
displacementtimestimesthethecosine
cosineofofthe
theangle
angleααbetween
betweenpp
and
anddd(Fig.
(Fig.179).
179).

EXAMPLE 2 (continued)
Work Done by a Force Expressed as an Inner Product
(continued) If α < 90°, as in Fig. 179, then W > 0. If p and d are

(continued) If α < 90°, as in Fig. 179, then W > 0. If p and d are
orthogonal,
orthogonal,then
thenthethework
workisiszero
zero(why?).
(why?).IfIfαα>>90°,
90°,then
then
WW<<0,0,which
whichmeans
meansthat
thatin
inthe
thedisplacement
displacementone onehas
hastotodo
do
work
workagainst
againstthe
theforce.
force.For
Forexample,
example,think
thinkofofswimming
swimming
across
acrossaariver
riveratatsome
someangle
angleααagainst
againstthe
thecurrent.
current.
Fig. 179. Work done by a force

Fig. 179. Work done by a force

EXAMPLE 3
Component of a Force in a Given Direction
What
Whatforce
forcein
inthe
therope
ropein
inFig.
Fig.180
180will
willhold
holdaacar
carof
of5000
5000lb
lb
in
inequilibrium
equilibriumififthe
theramp
rampmakes
makesananangle
angleof
of25°
25°with
withthe
the
horizontal?
horizontal?
Fig. 180. Example 3

Fig. 180. Example 3
Solution.
Solution.Introducing
Introducingcoordinates
coordinatesas
asshown,
shown,the
theweight
weightisis
aa==[0,
[0,−5000]
−5000]because
becausethis
thisforce
forcepoints
pointsdownward,
downward,ininthe
the
negative
negativey-direction.
y-direction.
Solution.
Solution.(continued 1)
(continued 1)
We
Wehave
haveto
torepresent
representaaas asaasum
sum(resultant)
(resultant)ofoftwo
twoforces,
forces,
aa==cc++p,
p,where
whereccisisthe theforce
forcethe
thecar
carexerts
exertson
onthe
theramp,
ramp,
which
whichisisof
ofno
nointerest
interestto tous,
us,and
andppisisparallel
parallelto
tothe
therope.
rope.
AAvector
vectorin
inthe
thedirection
directionof ofthe
therope
ropeisis(see
(seeFig.
Fig.180)
180)
bb==[−1,
[−1,tan
tan25°]
25°]==[−1,
[−1,0.46631],
0.46631],thus
thus|b|
|b|==1.10338,
1.10338,
The
Thedirection
directionofofthe
theunit
unitvector
vectoruuisisopposite
oppositeto
tothe
the
direction
directionof
ofthe
therope
ropesosothat
that
1
u   b  [0.90631,  0.42262].
b

Solution.
(continued 2)
Since
Since|u|
|u|==11and
andcos
cosγγ>>0,0,we
wesee
seethat
thatwe
wecan
canwrite
writeour
our
result
resultas
as
a  b 5000  0.46631
p  ( a cos  ) u  a  u     2113 lb  .
b 1.10338
We
Wecan
canalso
alsonote
notethat
thatγγ==90°
90°−−25°
25°==65°
65°isisthe
theangle
angle
between
betweenaaand
andppsosothat
that
p  a cos   5000 cos 65  2113 lb  .
Answer:
Answer:About
About2100
2100lb.
lb.
Example
Example33isistypical
typicalof
ofapplications
applicationsthatthatdeal
dealwith
withthe
the
component
componentor orprojection
projectionofofaavector
vectoraain
inthe
thedirection
directionofofaavector
vector
b(≠
b(≠0).
0).IfIfwe
wedenote
denotebybyppthe
thelength
lengthofofthe
theorthogonal
orthogonal
projection
projectionof ofaaon
onaastraight
straightline
linel lparallel
parallelto
tobbas
asshown
shownin in
Fig.
Fig.181,
181,then
then
(10)
(10) pp==|a|cos
|a|cosγ.
γ.
Here
Hereppisistaken
takenwith
withthe
theplus
plussign
signififpb
pbhas
hasthe
thedirection
directionof
ofbb
and
andwith
withthe
theminus
minussign
signififpb
pbhas
hasthe
thedirection
directionopposite
oppositetotob.
b.
Fig. 181. Component of a vector a in the direction of a vector b

Fig. 181. Component of a vector a in the direction of a vector b
Multiplying
Multiplying(10)
(10)by
by|b|/|b|
|b|/|b|==1,1,we haveaa••bbin
wehave inthe
the
numerator
numeratorand
andthus
thus
a b
(11) p (b
(11) b (b≠≠0).
0).
IfIfbbisisaaunit
unitvector,
vector,as
asititisisoften
oftenused
usedfor
forfixing
fixingaadirection,
direction,
then
then(11)(11)simply
simplygives
gives
(12)
(12) pp==aa••bb (|b|
(|b|==1).
1).

Figure
Figure182
182shows
showsthe
theprojection
projectionppof
ofaain
inthe
thedirection
directionof
ofbb(as
(as
in
inFig.
Fig.181)
181)and
andthe
theprojection
projectionqq==|b|cos
|b|cosγγofofbbin
inthe
the
direction
directionof
ofa.a.
Fig. 182. Projections p of a on b and q of b on a

Fig. 182. Projections p of a on b and q of b on a

EXAMPLE 4 Orthonormal Basis

By
Bydefinition,
definition,an anorthonormal
orthonormalbasis basisforfor3-space
3-spaceisisaabasis
basis
{a,
{a,b,b,c}c}consisting
consistingof oforthogonal
orthogonalunit unitvectors.
vectors.ItIthashasthe
the
great
greatadvantage
advantagethat thatthe
thedetermination
determinationof ofthe
thecoefficients
coefficients
in
inrepresentations
representationsvv==l1la1a++l2lb b ++l3lccofofaagiven
given vector
vector vvisis
2 3
very
verysimple.
simple.We Weclaim
claimthatthatl1l1==aa••v,v,l2l2==bb••v,v,l3l3==cc••v.v.
Indeed,
Indeed,this thisfollows
followssimply
simplyby bytaking
takingthe theinner
innerproducts
products
of
ofthe
therepresentation
representationwith witha,a,b, b,c,c,respectively,
respectively,and andusing
using
the
theorthonormality
orthonormalityof ofthe
thebasis,
basis,
aa••vv==l1laa••aa++l2laa••bb++l3laa••cc==l1l, ,etc.
1 2 3 1 etc.
For
Forexample,
example,the theunit
unitvectors
vectorsi,i,j,j,kkin in(8),
(8),Sec.
Sec.9.1,
9.1,
associated
associatedwith withaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem systemform forman an
orthonormal
orthonormalbasis, basis,called
calledthe
thestandard
standardbasis basiswith
withrespect
respect
to
tothe
thegiven
givencoordinate
coordinatesystem.system.
9.3
9.3 Vector
Vector Product
Product
(Cross
(Cross Product)
Product)

9.3 Vector Product (Cross Product)
Definition
Vector
VectorProduct
Product(Cross
(CrossProduct,
Product,Outer
OuterProduct)
Product)
of
ofVectors
Vectors
The
Thevector
vectorproduct
productor
orcross
crossproduct
productaa××bb(read
(read“a
“across
crossb”)
b”)
of
oftwo
twovectors
vectorsaaand
andbbisisthe
thevector
vectorvvdenoted
denotedby
by
vv==aa××bb
I.I.IfIfaa==00or
orbb==0,0,then
thenwewedefine
definevv==aa××bb==0.0.
II.
II.IfIfboth
bothvectors
vectorsare
arenonzero
nonzerovectors,
vectors,then
thenvector
vectorvvhas
hasthe
the
length
length
(1)
(1) |v|
|v|==|a
|a××b|
b|==|a||b|sin
|a||b|sinγ,
γ,
where
whereγγisisthe
theangle
anglebetween
betweenaaand
andbbas
asin
inSec.
Sec.9.2.
9.2.
Definition (continued)
Vector
VectorProduct
Product(Cross
(CrossProduct,
Product,Outer
OuterProduct)
Product)
of
ofVectors
Vectors(continued 1)
(continued 1)
Furthermore,
Furthermore,bybydesign,
design,aaand
andbbform
formthe
thesides
sidesof
ofaa
parallelogram
parallelogramononaaplane
planein
inspace.
space.The
Theparallelogram
parallelogramisis
shaded
shadedininblue
bluein
inFig.
Fig.185.
185.The
Thearea
areaof
ofthis
thisblue
blue
parallelogram
parallelogramisisprecisely
preciselygiven
givenbybyEq.
Eq.(1),
(1),so
sothat
thatthe
thelength
length
|v|
|v|of
ofthe
thevector
vectorvvisisequal
equalto
tothe
thearea
areaof
ofthat
thatparallelogram.
parallelogram.
III.
III.IfIfaaand
andbblie
liein
inthe
thesame
samestraight
straightline,
line,i.e.,
i.e.,aaand
andbbhave
have
the
thesame
sameor oropposite
oppositedirections,
directions,then
thenγγisis0°
0°oror180°
180°so
sothat
that
sin
sinγγ==0.0.InInthat
thatcase
case|v|
|v|==00so
sothat
thatvv==aa××bb==0.0.

Definition (continued)
Vector
VectorProduct
Product(Cross
(CrossProduct,
Product,Outer
OuterProduct)
Product)
of
ofVectors
Vectors(continued 2)
(continued 2)
IV.
IV.IfIfcases
casesIIand
andIIIIIIdo
donot
notoccur,
occur,then
thenvvisisaanonzero
nonzerovector.
vector.
The
Thedirection
directionof ofvv==aa××bbisisperpendicular
perpendicularto toboth
bothaaand
andbb
such
suchthat
thata,a,b,
b,v—precisely
v—preciselyin inthis
thisorder
order(!)—form
(!)—formaaright-
right-
handed
handedtriple
tripleasasshown
shownin inFigs.
Figs.185–187
185–187andandexplained
explained
below.
below.
Another
Anotherterm
termfor
forvector
vectorproduct
productisisouter
outerproduct.
product.

Remark.
Remark.NoteNotethat thatIIand
andIII
IIIcompletely
completelycharacterize
characterizethe the
exceptional
exceptionalcase casewhen whenthethecross
crossproduct
productisisequal
equaltotothe thezero zero
vector,
vector,and
andIIIIand andIV IVthe
theregular
regularcase casewhere
wherethe
thecross
cross
product
productisisperpendicular
perpendicularto totwo
twovectors.
vectors.
Just
Justas
aswe
wedid didwith withthe
thedot
dotproduct,
product,we wewould
wouldalsoalsolike liketo to
express
expressthe
thecross
crossproduct
productin incomponents.
components.Let Letaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]
and
andbb==[b[b1,1,bb2,2,bb3].
].Then
Then vv==[v[v1, ,vv
2, ,vv
3]]==aa××bbhas
has the
the
3 1 2 3
components
components
(2)
(2) vv1 1==aa2b2b3 3−−aa3b3b2,2, vv2 2==aa3b3b1 1−−aa1b1b3,3, vv3 3==aa1b1b2 2−−aa2b2b1.1.
Here
Herethe
theCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate coordinatesystem systemisisright-handed,
right-handed,as as
explained
explainedbelow
below(see (seealsoalsoFig.
Fig.188).188).(For (Foraaleft-handed
left-handed
system,
system,each
eachcomponent
componentof ofvvmustmustbe bemultiplied
multipliedby by−1. −1.
Derivation
Derivationof of(2) (2)ininApp.App.4.)4.)
Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
Section 9.3 p46 Copyright 2011 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved.
Right-Handed
Right-HandedTriple.
Triple.
AAtriple
tripleof
ofvectors
vectorsa,a,b,
b,vvisisright-handed
right-handedififthe
thevectors
vectorsin inthe
the
given
givenorder
orderassume
assumethe thesame
samesortsortof
oforientation
orientationas asthe
the
thumb,
thumb,index
indexfinger,
finger,and
andmiddle
middlefinger
fingerof
ofthe
theright
righthand
hand
when
whenthese
theseare
areheld
heldasasininFig.
Fig.186.
186.WeWemay
mayalsoalsosay
saythat
thatififaa
isisrotated
rotatedinto
intothe
thedirection
directionof ofbbthrough
throughthetheangle
angleγ(<γ(<π),
π),
then
thenvvadvances
advancesin inthe
thesame
samedirection
directionas
asaaright-handed
right-handed
screw
screwwould
wouldififturned
turnedin inthe
thesame
samewayway(Fig.
(Fig.187).
187).

Right-Handed
Right-HandedTriple.
Triple.(continued)
(continued)
Fig. 185. Vector product Fig. 186. Right-handed Fig. 187. Right-handed
Fig. 185. Vector product Fig. 186. Right-handed Fig. 187. Right-handed
triple of vectors a, b, v screw
triple of vectors a, b, v screw
Right-Handed
Right-HandedCartesianCartesianCoordinate
CoordinateSystem.
System.
The
Thesystem
systemisiscalled
calledright-handed
right-handedififthe thecorresponding
correspondingunit unit
vectors
vectorsi,i,j,j,kkininthe
thepositive
positivedirections
directionsof ofthe
theaxes
axes(see
(seeSec.
Sec.
9.1)
9.1)form
formaaright-handed
right-handedtriple
tripleas
asin
inFig.
Fig.188a.
188a.The
Thesystem
systemisis
called
calledleft-handed
left-handedififthe thesense
senseofofkkisisreversed,
reversed,asasin
inFig.
Fig.
188b.
188b.InInapplications,
applications,we weprefer
preferright-handed
right-handedsystems.
systems.
Fig. 188. The two types of Cartesian coordinate systems

Fig. 188. The two types of Cartesian coordinate systems
How
Howto toMemorize
Memorize(2). (2).
IfIfyou
youknow
knowsecond-second-and andthird-order
third-orderdeterminants,
determinants,you youseesee
that
that(2)
(2)can
canbe bewritten
written
a2 a 3 a1 a3 a3 a1 a1 a2
(2*) v  , v2    , v3 
(2*) 1 b b b1 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2
2 3
and
andvv==[v[v1,1,vv2,2,vv3]3]==vv1i1i++vv2 2jj++vv3k kisisthe
the expansion
expansion of
of the
the
3
following
followingsymbolic
symbolicdeterminant
determinantby byits
itsfirst
firstrow.
row.(We
(Wecallcallthe
the
determinant
determinant“symbolic”
“symbolic”because becausethe thefirst
firstrow
rowconsists
consistsof of
vectors
vectorsrather
ratherthan thanof ofnumbers.)
numbers.)
i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
(2**) v  a × b  a1 a2 a3  i j k.
(2**) b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
For
Foraaleft-handed
left-handedsystem systemthe thedeterminant
determinanthas hasaaminus
minussignsign
ininfront.
front. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig
EXAMPLE 2
Vector Products of the Standard Basis Vectors
i × j  k, j × k  i, k×i  j
(3)
(3) j× i  k , k × j  i , i × k   j.

Theorem 1
General
GeneralProperties
Propertiesof
ofVector
VectorProducts
Products
(a)
(a)For
Forevery
everyscalar
scalarl,l,
(4)
(4) (la)
(la)××bb==l(a
l(a××b)
b)==aa××(lb).
(lb).
(b)
(b)Cross
Crossmultiplication
multiplicationisisdistributive
distributivewith
withrespect
respecttotovector
vector
addition;
addition;that
thatis,
is,
( ) a × ( b  c)  (a × b)  (a × c),
(5)
(5) ( ) (a  b) × c  (a × c)  ( b × c).
(c)
(c)Cross
Crossmultiplication
multiplicationisisnot
notcommutative
commutativebut
but
anticommutative;
anticommutative;that thatis,
is,
(6)
(6) bb××aa==−(a
−(a××b)
b) (Fig.
(Fig.189).
189).
Theorem 1 (continued)
General
GeneralProperties
Propertiesof ofVector
VectorProducts
Products(continued)
(continued)
(d)
(d)Cross
Crossmultiplication
multiplicationisisnot
notassociative;
associative;that
thatis,
is,in
ingeneral,
general,
(7)
(7) aa××(b
(b××c)c)≠≠(a(a××b)
b)××cc
so
sothat
thatthe
theparentheses
parenthesescannot
cannotbe beomitted.
omitted.
Fig. 189. Anticommutativity of cross multiplication

Fig. 189. Anticommutativity of cross multiplication
EXAMPLE 3 Moment of a Force
In
Inmechanics
mechanicsthethemoment
momentmmof ofaaforce
forceppabout
aboutaapoint
pointQQisis
defined
definedas asthe
theproduct
productmm==|p|d, |p|d,where
whereddisisthe
the
(perpendicular)
(perpendicular)distance
distancebetween
betweenQQandandthe
theline
lineof
ofaction
action
LLofofpp(Fig.
(Fig.190).
190).IfIfrrisisthe
thevector
vectorfrom
fromQQto toany
anypoint
pointAAon on
L,L,then
thendd==|r|
|r|sin
sinγ, γ,asasshown
shownininFig.
Fig.190,
190,and
and
mm==|r||p|
|r||p|sin
sinγ.
γ.
Since
Sinceγγisisthe
theangle
anglebetween
betweenrrand
andp,
p,we
wesee
seefrom
from(1)
(1)that
that
mm==|r
|r××p|.
p|.

EXAMPLE 3 (continued) Moment of a Force

The
Thevector
vector
(8)
(8) mm==rr××pp
isiscalled
calledthe
themoment
momentvector
vectorororvector
vectormoment
momentof ofppabout
about
Q.Q.Its
Itsmagnitude
magnitudeisism. m.IfIfm
m≠≠0,0,its
itsdirection
directionisisthat
thatof
ofthe
the
axis
axisofofthe
therotation
rotationabout
aboutQQthat
thatpphashasthe
thetendency
tendencyto to
produce.
produce.ThisThisaxis
axisisisperpendicular
bothrrand
andp.p.
Fig. 190. Moment of a force p

Fig. 190. Moment of a force p
EXAMPLE 5 Velocity of a Rotating Body
AArotation
rotationof ofaarigid
rigidbody
bodyBBin inspace
spacecancanbe
besimply
simplyand and
uniquely
uniquelydescribed
describedby byaavector
vectorw wasasfollows.
follows.The
Thedirection
direction
of
ofwwisisthat
thatofofthe
theaxis
axisof
ofrotation
rotationand
andsuch
suchthat
thatthe
the
rotation
rotationappears
appearsclockwise
clockwiseififone
onelooks
looksfrom
fromthe
theinitial
initial
point
pointof ofwwtotoits
itsterminal
terminalpoint.
point.The
Thelength
lengthofofwwisisequal
equaltoto
the
theangular
angularspeedspeedω(>0)
ω(>0)ofofthe
therotation,
rotation,that
thatis,
is,the
thelinear
linear
(or
(ortangential)
tangential)speedspeedof ofaapoint
pointofofBBdivided
dividedby byits
itsdistance
distance
from
fromthetheaxis
axisofofrotation.
rotation.
Let
LetPPbe beany
anypoint
pointofofBBand
andddits
itsdistance
distancefrom
fromthetheaxis.
axis.
Then
ThenPPhas hasthe
thespeed
speedωd.
ωd.Let
Letrrbe
bethe
theposition
positionvector
vectorofofPP
referred
referredto toaacoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemwith
withorigin
origin00ononthe
theaxis
axisof
of
rotation.
rotation.
Velocity of a Rotating Body
(continued 1)
(continued 1)
Then
Thendd==|r||r|sin
sinγ,
γ,where
whereγγisisthetheangle
anglebetween
betweenwwand
andr.r.
Therefore,
Therefore,
ωd
ωd==|w||r|
|w||r|sinsinγγ==|w|w××r|.
r|.
From
Fromthis
thisand
andthe
thedefinition
definitionofofvector
vectorproduct
productwe
wesee
seethat
that
the
thevelocity
velocityvector
vectorvvof
ofPPcan
canbeberepresented
representedin
inthe
theform
form
(Fig.
(Fig.192)
192)
(9)
(9) vv==ww××r.r.
This
Thissimple
simpleformula
formulaisisuseful
usefulforfordetermining
determiningvvatatany
any
point
pointofofB.
B.

Velocity of a Rotating Body
(continued 2)
(continued 2)
Fig. 192. Rotation of a rigid body

Fig. 192. Rotation of a rigid body
Scalar Triple Product

Certain
Certainproducts
productsof ofvectors,
vectors,having
havingthree
threeor
ormore
morefactors,
factors,
occur
occurin
inapplications.
applications.The Themost
mostimportant
importantofofthese
these
products
productsisisthe
thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct
productor
ormixed
mixedproduct
productofof
three
threevectors
vectorsa,a,b,
b,c.c.
(10*)
(10*) (a bb c)c)==aa••(b
(a (b××c). c).
The
Thescalar
scalartriple tripleproduct
productisisindeed indeedaascalar scalarsince
since(10*)(10*)
involves
involvesaadot dotproduct,
product,whichwhichin inturn
turnisisaascalar.
scalar.We Wewant want
to
toexpress
expressthe thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproductproductin incomponents
componentsand andas as
aathird
thirdorderorderdeterminant.
determinant.To Tothisthisend,end,let
letaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3],
3],
bb==[b[b1, ,bb2, ,bb3],],and
andcc==[c[c1, ,cc2, ,cc3].].
1 2 3 1 2 3

Scalar Triple Product (continued 1)

Also
Alsoset
set(b
(b××c)c)==vv==[v[v1,1,vv2,2,vv3].].Then
Then from
from the
the dot
dotproduct
product
3
in
incomponents
components[formula
[formula(2) (2)in inSec.
Sec.9.2]
9.2]and
andfrom
from(2*)
(2*)with
with
bband
andccinstead
insteadof ofaaand
andbbwe wefirst
firstobtain
obtain
aa••(b
(b××c)c)==aa••vv==aa1v1v1 1++aa2v2v2 2++aa3v3v3 3
b2 b3 b3 b1 b1 b2
 a1  a2  a3 .
c2 c3 c3 c1 c1 c2

Scalar Triple Product (continued 2)

The
Thesum
sumononthe
theright
rightisisthe
theexpansion
expansionofofaathird-order
third-order
determinant
determinantbybyits
itsfirst
firstrow.
row.Thus
Thuswe
weobtain
obtainthe
thedesired
desired
formula
formulafor
forthe
thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct,
product,that
thatis,
is,
a1 a2 a3
(10)
(10)  a b c   a  ( b × c)  b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
The
Themost
mostimportant
importantproperties
propertiesof
ofthe
thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct
product
are
areas
asfollows.
follows.

Theorem 2
Properties
Propertiesand
andApplications
Applicationsof
ofScalar
ScalarTriple
TripleProducts
Products
(a)
(a)In
In(10)
(10)the
thedot
dotand
andcross
crosscan
canbe
beinterchanged:
interchanged:
(11)
(11) (a bb c)c)==aa••(b
(a b)••c.c.
(b××c)c)==(a(a××b)
(b)
(b)Geometric
Geometricinterpretation.
interpretation.The Theabsolute
absolutevalue
value|(a
|(a bb c)|c)|ofof
(10)
(10)isisthe
thevolume
volumeofofthe
theparallelepiped
parallelepiped(oblique
(obliquebox)
box)with
witha,a,b,
b,ccasas
edge
edgevectors
vectors(Fig.
(Fig.193).
193).
(c)
(c) Linear independence. Three vectors in R3are
Linear independence. Three vectors in R 3
arelinearly
linearly
independent
independentififand
andonly
onlyififtheir
theirscalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct
productisisnot
notzero.
zero.

PROOF
PROOF
(a)
(a)Dot
Dotmultiplication
multiplicationisiscommutative,
commutative,so
sothat
thatby
by(10)
(10)
c1 c2 c3
(a  b)  c  c  (a  b)  a1 a2 a3 .
b1 b2 b3
From
Fromthis
thiswe
weobtain
obtainthethedeterminant
determinantin in(10)
(10)by
byinterchanging
interchanging
Rows
Rows11and
and22and
andin
inthe
theresult
resultRows
Rows22and and3.3.But
Butthis
thisdoes
doesnot
not
change
changethe
thevalue
valueof
ofthe
thedeterminant
determinantbecause
becauseeach
eachinterchange
interchange
produces
producesaafactor
factor−1,
−1,and
and(−1)(−1)
(−1)(−1)==1.1.This
Thisproves
proves(11).
(11).

(b)
(b)The
Thevolume
volumeof ofthat
thatbox
boxequals
equalsthe
theheight
heighthh==|a||cos
|a||cosγ|γ|
(Fig.
(Fig.193)
193)times
timesthe
thearea
areaof
ofthe
thebase,
base,which
whichisisthe
thearea
area|b
|b××c|
c|
of
ofthe
theparallelogram
parallelogramwith
withsides
sidesbband
andc.c.Hence
Hencethethevolume
volumeisis
|a||b
|a||b××c||cos
c||cosγ| |a••(b
γ|==|a (b××c)|
c)| (Fig.
(Fig.193)
193)
as
asgiven
givenby
bythe
theabsolute
absolutevalue
valueof
of(11).
(11).
Fig. 193. Geometric interpretation of a scalar triple product

Fig. 193. Geometric interpretation of a scalar triple product

(c)
(c)Three
Threenonzero
nonzerovectors,
vectors,whose
whoseinitial
initialpoints
pointscoincide,
coincide,are are
linearly
linearlyindependent
independentififand
andonly
onlyififthethevectors
vectorsdodonotnotlie
lieininthe
the
same
sameplane
planenor
norlie
lieon
onthe
thesame
samestraight
straightline.
line.
This
Thishappens
happensififand
andonly
onlyififthe
thetriple
tripleproduct
productin in(b)
(b)isisnot
not
zero,
zero,so
sothat
thatthe
theindependence
independencecriterion
criterionfollows.
follows.(The
(Thecase
caseof of
one
oneofofthe
thevectors
vectorsbeing
beingthe
thezero
zerovector
vectorisistrivial.)
trivial.)

9.4
9.4 Vector
Vector and
and Scalar
Scalar Functions
Functions
and
and Their
Their Fields.
Fields.
Vector
Vector Calculus:
Calculus: Derivatives
Derivatives

9.4 Vector and Scalar Functions and Their Fields.
Vector Calculus: Derivatives
Our
Ourdiscussion
discussionofofvector
vectorcalculus
calculusbegins
beginswith
withidentifying
identifying
the
thetwo
twotypes
typesof
offunctions
functionson onwhich
whichititoperates.
operates.Let
LetPPbebe
any
anypoint
pointin
inaadomain
domainof ofdefinition.
definition.Typical
Typicaldomains
domainsin in
applications
applicationsare
arethree-dimensional,
three-dimensional,or oraasurface
surfaceororaacurve
curve
in
inspace.
space.Then
Thenwewedefine
defineaavector
vectorfunction
functionv,v,whose
whose
values
valuesare
arevectors,
vectors,that
thatis,
is,
vv==v(P)
v(P)==[v
[v1(P),
(P),vv2(P),
(P),vv3(P)]
1 2 3(P)]
that
thatdepends
dependsononpoints
pointsPPin inspace.
space.We Wesay saythat
thataavector
vector
function
functiondefines
definesaavector
vectorfield
fieldininaadomain
domainof ofdefinition.
definition.
Typical
Typicaldomains
domainswere
werejust
justmentioned.
mentioned.

Examples
Examplesof ofvector
vectorfields
fieldsare
arethe
thefield
fieldof
oftangent
tangentvectors
vectorsofofaa
curve
curve(shown
(shownininFig.
Fig.195),
195),normal
normalvectors
vectorsof
ofaasurface
surface(Fig.
(Fig.
196),
196),and
andvelocity
velocityfield
fieldof
ofaarotating
rotatingbody
body(Fig.
(Fig.197).
197).Note
Note
that
thatvector
vectorfunctions
functionsmay
mayalso
alsodepend
dependon ontime
timettor
orononsome
some
other
otherparameters.
parameters.
Fig. 195. Field of tangent Fig. 196. Field of normal Fig. 197. Velocity field
Fig. 195. Field of tangent Fig. 196. Field of normal Fig. 197. Velocity field
vectors of a curve vectors of a surface of a rotating body
vectors of a curve vectors of a surface of a rotating body

Similarly,
Similarly,wewedefine
defineaascalar
scalarfunction
functionf,f,whose
whosevalues
values
are
arescalars,
scalars,that
thatis,
is,
f f==f(P)
f(P)
that
thatdepends
dependson onP.P.We
Wesay
saythat
thataascalar
scalarfunction
functiondefines
definesaa
scalar
scalarfield
fieldin
inthat
thatthree-dimensional
three-dimensionaldomain
domainororsurface
surfaceoror
curve
curvein inspace.
space.TwoTworepresentative
representativeexamples
examplesof ofscalar
scalar
fields
fieldsare
arethe
thetemperature
temperaturefield
fieldof
ofaabody
bodyand
andthe
thepressure
pressure
field
fieldof
ofthe
theair
airininEarth’s
Earth’satmosphere.
atmosphere.NoteNotethat
thatscalar
scalar
functions
functionsmaymayalsoalsodepend
dependon onsome
someparameter
parametersuch
suchasas
time
timet.t.

EXAMPLE 1
Scalar Function (Euclidean Distance in Space)
The
Thedistance
distancef(P) f(P)of ofanyanypoint
pointPPfromfromaafixedfixedpoint
pointPP0 0in in
space
spaceisisaascalar
scalarfunction
functionwhosewhosedomaindomainof ofdefinition
definitionisis
the
thewhole
wholespace.
space.f(P) f(P)defines
definesaascalar
scalarfield
fieldin inspace.
space.IfIfwe we
introduce
introduceaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemand andPP0 0has
hasthe the
coordinates
coordinatesxx0,0,yy0,0,zz0,0,then
thenf fisisgiven
givenby bythe
thewell-known
well-known
formula
formula
f ( P )  f ( x , y , z )  ( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y 0 ) 2  ( z  z 0 ) 2
where
wherex,x,y,y,zzare
arethe
thecoordinates
coordinatesof
ofP.
P.

Scalar Function (Euclidean Distance in Space)
IfIfwe
wereplace
replacethe
thegiven
givenCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemwith
with
another
anothersuch
suchsystem
systemby bytranslating
translatingand
androtating
rotatingthe thegiven
given
system,
system,then
thenthe
thevalues
valuesof ofthe
thecoordinates
coordinatesofofPPandandPP0 0will
will
iningeneral
generalchange,
change,but butf(P)
f(P)will
willhave
havethe
thesame
samevalue
valueasas
before.
before.Hence
Hencef(P)
f(P)isisaascalar
scalarfunction.
function.The
Thedirection
direction
cosines
cosinesof
ofthe
thestraight
straightlinelinethrough
throughPPandandPP0 0are
arenot
notscalars
scalars
because
becausetheir
theirvalues
valuesdepend
dependon onthe
thechoice
choiceofofthe
the
coordinate
coordinatesystem.
system.

Vector Calculus
Convergence.
Convergence.
An
Aninfinite
infinitesequence
sequenceof ofvectors
vectorsaa(n)(n), ,nn==1,1,2,2,…
…, ,isissaid
saidto
to
converge
convergeififthere
thereisisaavector
vectoraasuch
suchthat that
(4) lim a( n )  a  0.
(4) n
aaisiscalled
calledthe
thelimit
limitvector
vectorof
ofthat
thatsequence,
sequence,and
andwe
wewrite
write
(5) lim a( n )  a.
(5) n

Vector Calculus
Convergence.
Convergence.(continued 1)
(continued 1)
IfIfthe
thevectors
vectorsare
aregiven
givenin inCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates,
coordinates,thenthenthis
this
sequence
sequenceof ofvectors
vectorsconverges
convergesto toaaififand
andonly
onlyififthe
thethree
three
sequences
sequencesof ofcomponents
componentsof ofthe
thevectors
vectorsconverge
convergeto tothe
the
corresponding
correspondingcomponents
componentsof ofa.a.
Similarly,
Similarly,aavector
vectorfunction
functionv(t) v(t)ofofaareal
realvariable
variablettisissaid
said
totohave
havethe
thelimit
limitllas
asttapproaches
approachestt0,0,ififv(t)
v(t)isisdefined
definedin in
some
someneighborhood
neighborhoodof oftt0 (possibly
(possiblyexcept
exceptatattt0))and
and
0 0
(6) lim v(t )  l  0.

(6) tt 0

Vector Calculus
Convergence.
Convergence.(continued 2)
(continued 2)
Then
Thenwe
wewrite
write
(7)
(7) lim v(t )  l.
tt 0
Here,
Here,aaneighborhood
neighborhoodof oft0t0isisan
aninterval
interval(segment)
(segment)ononthe
the
t-axis
t-axiscontaining
containingtt0 0as
asan
aninterior
interiorpoint
point(not
(notas
asan
an
endpoint).
endpoint).

Continuity.
Continuity.AAvector vectorfunction
functionv(t)
v(t)isissaid
saidto
tobe
becontinuous
continuous
atattt==t0t ififititisisdefined
defined in
insome
some neighborhood
neighborhood of
oft0t
0 0
(including
(includingatatt0t itself!)
itself!)and
and
0
(8) lim v(tt)  v( 0 ).

(8) tt 0
IfIfwe
weintroduce
introduceaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem, system,we wemay may
write
write
v(t )   v1 (t ), v2 (t ), v3 (t )   v1 (t )i  v2 (t ) j  v3 (t )k.
Then
Thenv(t)
v(t)isiscontinuous
continuousatatt0t0ififand
andonly
onlyififits
itsthree
three
components
componentsare arecontinuous
continuousatatt0t. . 0

Definition
Derivative
Derivativeof
ofaaVector
VectorFunction
Function
AAvector
vectorfunction
functionv(t)
v(t)isissaid
saidto
tobe
bedifferentiable
differentiableatataapoint
pointtt
ififthe
thefollowing
followinglimit
limitexists:
exists:
v(tt  )  v(t )
(9)
(9) v(t )  lim .
t  0 t
This
Thisvector
vectorv’(t)
v’(t)isiscalled
calledthe
thederivative
derivativeof
ofv(t).
v(t).See
SeeFig.
Fig.199.
199.
Fig. 199. Derivative of a vector function

Fig. 199. Derivative of a vector function
In
Incomponents
componentswith
withrespect
respectto
toaagiven
givenCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinate
system,
system,
(10) v(t )   v1 (t ), v2 (t ), v3 (t )  .
(10)
Hence
Hencethe
thederivative
derivativev’(t)
v’(t)isisobtained
obtainedby
bydifferentiating
differentiatingeach
each
component
componentseparately.
separately.
For
For instance, if v = [t, t,2,0],
instance, if v = [t, t 2
0],then
thenv’v’==[1,
[1,2t,
2t,0].
0].

Equation
Equation(10)
(10)follows
followsfrom
from(9) (9)and
andconversely
converselybecause
because(9)(9)isis
aa“vector
“vectorform”
form”of ofthe
theusual
usualformula
formulaof ofcalculus
calculusby bywhich
which
the
thederivative
derivativeof ofaafunction
functionof ofaasingle
singlevariable
variableisisdefined.
defined.
[The
[Thecurve
curveininFig.
Fig.199
199isisthe
thelocus
locusofofthe
theterminal
terminalpoints
points
representing
representingv(t)
v(t)for
forvalues
valuesof ofthe
theindependent
independentvariable
variableinin
some
someinterval
intervalcontaining
containingttand andtt++ΔtΔtinin(9)].
(9)].ItItfollows
followsthat
that
the
thefamiliar
familiardifferentiation
differentiationrules
rulescontinue
continueto tohold
holdforfor
differentiating
differentiatingvector
vectorfunctions,
functions,for forinstance
instance
(cv )  cv
(c(cconstant),
constant),
( u  v )  u  v

and
andin
inparticular
particular
(11) ( u  v )  u  v  u  v
(11)
(12)
(12) ( u × v )  u × v  u × v
   
(13) ( u v w)  ( u v w)  ( u v w)  ( u v w ).
(13)

Partial Derivatives of a Vector Function

Suppose
Supposethat
thatthe
thecomponents
componentsof ofaavector
vectorfunction
function
v   v1 , v2 , v3   v1i  v2 j  v3 k
are
aredifferentiable
differentiablefunctions
functionsof ofnnvariables
variablestt1,1,…
…, ,ttn.n.Then
Then
the
thepartial
partialderivative
derivativeof ofvvwith
withrespect
respectto
tottmmisisdenoted
denotedby by
∂v/∂t
∂v/∂tmmand
andisisdefined
defined as
asthe
the vector
vector function
v v1 v2 v3 function
 i j k.
ttm  m ttm m
Similarly,
Similarly,second
second partial
partial derivatives
derivatives are and so on.
2 are and so on.
 v2
 v1
2
 v2
2
 v3
 i j k.
ttl  m ttl  m ttl  m ttl  m

9.5
9.5 Curves.
Curves. Arc
Arc Length.
Length.
Curvature.
Curvature. Torsion
Torsion

9.5 Curves. Arc Length. Curvature. Torsion
The
Theapplication
applicationof ofvector
vectorcalculus
calculusto
togeometry
geometryisisaafield
field
known
knownas asdifferential
differentialgeometry.
geometry.
Bodies
Bodiesthat
thatmove
movein inspace
spaceform
formpaths
pathsthat
thatmay
maybebe
represented
representedby bycurves
curvesC.C.This
Thisand
andother
otherapplications
applicationsshow
show
the
theneed
needforforparametric
parametricrepresentations
representationsofofCCwith
with
parameter
parametert,t,which
whichmaymaydenote
denotetime
timeororsomething
somethingelse
else(see
(see
Fig.
Fig.200).
200).

AAtypical
typicalparametric
parametricrepresentation
representationisisgiven
givenby by
(1)
(1) r(t)
r(t)==[x(t),
[x(t), y(t),
y(t), z(t)]
z(t)]==x(t)i
x(t)i++y(t)j
y(t)j++z(t)k.
z(t)k.
Fig. 200. Parametric representation of a curve

Fig. 200. Parametric representation of a curve
Here
Herettisisthe
theparameter
parameterand andx,x,y,y,zzare
areCartesian
Cartesian
coordinates,
coordinates,that
thatis,
is,the
theusual
usualrectangular
rectangularcoordinates
coordinatesas
as
shown
shownin inSec.
Sec.9.1.
9.1.
To
Toeach
eachvalue
valuett==tt0,0,there
therecorresponds
correspondsaapoint
pointof ofCCwithwith
position
positionvector
vectorr(t
r(t0)0)whose
whosecoordinates
coordinatesare
arex(t
x(t0),),y(t
y(t0),),z(t
z(t0).).
0 0 0
This
Thisisisillustrated
illustratedin inFigs.
Figs.201
201and
and202.
202.
Fig. 201. Circle in Example 1 Fig. 202. Ellipse in Example 2

Fig. 201. Circle in Example 1 Fig. 202. Ellipse in Example 2

The
Theuseuseof
ofparametric
parametricrepresentations
representationshashaskey
keyadvantages
advantages
over
overother
otherrepresentations
representationsthat
thatinvolve
involveprojections
projectionsinto
intothe
the
xy-plane
xy-planeandandxz-plane
xz-planeor
orinvolve
involveaapair
pairof
ofequations
equationswith
withyy
or
orwith
withzzasasindependent
independentvariable.
variable.The
Theprojections
projectionslook
looklike
like
this:
this:
(2)
(2) yy==f(x),
f(x), zz==g(x).
g(x).
The
Theadvantages
advantagesof ofusing
using(1)
(1)instead
insteadofof(2)
(2)are
arethat,
that,inin(1),
(1),the
the
coordinates
coordinatesx,x,y,y,zzall
allplay
playan
anequal
equalrole,
role,that
thatis,
is,all
allthree
three
coordinates
coordinatesare aredependent
dependentvariables.
variables.Moreover,
Moreover,the the
parametric
representation(1) (1)induces
inducesan anorientation
orientationon onC.C.
This
Thismeans
meansthatthatas
aswe
weincrease
increaset,t,we
wetravel
travelalong
alongthethecurve
curve
CCininaacertain
certaindirection.
direction.The
Thesense
senseof
ofincreasing
increasingttisiscalled
called
the
thepositive
positivesense
senseononC.C.The
Thesense
senseof
ofdecreasing
decreasingttisisthenthen
called
calledthe
thenegative
negativesense
senseononC,C,given
givenby by(1).
(1).
EXAMPLE 3 Straight Line

AAstraight
straightline
lineLLthrough
throughaapoint
pointAAwith
withposition
positionvector
vectoraa
in
inthe
thedirection
directionofofaaconstant
constantvector
vectorbb(see
(seeFig.
Fig.203)
203)
can
canbeberepresented
representedparametrically
parametricallyininthe
theform
form
(4)
(4) r(t)
r(t)==aa++tb
tb==[a[a1 1++tbtb1,1,aa2 2++tbtb2,2,aa3 3++tbtb3].
3].
Fig. 203. Parametric representation of a straight line

Fig. 203. Parametric representation of a straight line
AAplane
planecurve
curveisisaacurve
curvethat
thatlies
liesin
inaaplane
planein
inspace.
space.AA
curve
curvethat
thatisisnot
notplane
planeisiscalled
calledaatwisted
twistedcurve.
curve.
AAsimple
simplecurve
curveisisaacurve
curvewithout
withoutmultiple
multiplepoints,
points,that
thatis,
is,
without
withoutpoints
pointsatatwhich
whichthethecurve
curveintersects
intersectsor
ortouches
touches
itself.
itself.Circle
Circleand
andhelix
helixare
aresimple
simplecurves.
curves.Figure
Figure206
206shows
shows
curves
curvesthatthatare
arenot
notsimple.
simple.
An
Anarcarcofofaacurve
curveisisthe
theportion
portionbetween
betweenanyanytwo
twopoints
points
of
ofthe
thecurve.
curve.ForForsimplicity,
simplicity,wewesaysay“curve”
“curve”for
forcurves
curvesasas
well
wellas asfor
forarcs.
arcs.
Fig. 206. Curves with multiple points

Fig. 206. Curves with multiple points
Tangent to a Curve
The
Thenext
nextidea
ideaisisthe
theapproximation
approximationof ofaacurve
curvebybystraight
straight
lines,
lines,leading
leadingtototangents
tangentsandandto toaadefinition
definitionofoflength.
length.
Tangents
Tangentsare arestraight
straightlines
linestouching
touchingaacurve.
curve.The
Thetangent
tangent
to
toaasimple
simplecurve
curveCCatataapoint
pointPPofofCCisisthe
thelimiting
limiting
position
positionofofaastraight
straightline
lineLLthrough
throughPPand andaapoint
pointQQof ofCC
as
asQQapproaches
approachesPPalongalongC. C.See
SeeFig.
Fig.207.
207.
Let
Letususformalize
formalizethis
thisconcept.
concept.IfIfCCisisgiven
givenbybyr(t),
r(t),and
andPP
and
andQQcorrespond
correspondto tottand
andtt++Δt,
Δt,then
thenaavector
vectorin
inthe
the
direction
directionofofLLisis
1
(6)
(6) r(tt  )  r(t )  .
t

Tangent to a Curve (continued)
In
Inthe
thelimit
limitthis thisvector
vectorbecomes
becomesthe thederivative
derivative
1
(7) r ( tt
)  lim r(  tt)  r( )  ,
(7) t  0 t
provided
providedr(t) r(t)isisdifferentiable,
differentiable,as aswe
weshallshallassume
assumefrom
from
now
nowon.on.IfIfr′(t)
r′(t)≠≠00we wecall
callr′(t)
r′(t)aatangent
tangentvectorvectorof
ofCCatatPP
because
becauseitithas hasthethedirection
directionof ofthe
thetangent.
tangent.The The
corresponding
correspondingunit unitvector
vectorisisthe
theunit
unittangent
tangentvector
vector(see
(see
Fig.
Fig.207)
207) 1
(8) u  r .
(8) r
Note
Notethat
thatboth
bothr′r′and
anduupoint
pointin
inthe
thedirection
directionof
ofincreasing
increasing
t.t.Hence
Hencetheir
theirsense
sensedepends
dependson onthe
theorientation
orientationof
ofC.
C.ItItisis
reversed
reversedififwe
wereverse
reversethe
theorientation.
orientation.
Tangent to a Curve (continued)

ItItisisnow
noweasy
easyto
tosee
seethat
thatthe
thetangent
tangentto
toCCatatPPisisgiven
givenby
by
(9)
(9) q(w)
q(w)==rr++wr'
wr' (Fig.
(Fig.208).
208).
This
Thisisisthe
thesum
sumofofthe
theposition
positionvector
vectorrrof
ofPPand
andaamultiple
multiple
of
ofthe
thetangent
tangentvector
vectorr′r′of
ofCCatatP.
P.Both
Bothvectors
vectorsdepend
dependonon
P.
P.The
Thevariable
variablewwisisthe
theparameter
parameterin in(9).
(9).
Fig. 207. Tangent to a curve Fig. 208. Formula (9) for the tangent to a curve
Fig. 207. Tangent to a curve Fig. 208. Formula (9) for the tangent to a curve
Length of a Curve
IfIfr(t)
r(t)has
hasaacontinuous
continuousderivative
derivativer′,r′,ititcan
canbe
beshown
shownthat
that
the
thesequence
sequencel1l,1,l2l,2,…
…has
hasaalimit,
limit,which
whichisisindependent
independentof of
the
theparticular
particularchoice
choiceof ofthe
therepresentation
representationof ofCCand
andofofthe
the
choice
choiceof ofsubdivisions.
subdivisions.This Thislimit
limitisisgiven
givenby bythe
theintegral
integral
 dr 
b
(10) l r   r dt 

 r  dt  .
(10)  
a
l lisiscalled
calledthe
thelength
lengthof
ofC,
C,and
andCCisiscalled
calledrectifiable.
rectifiable.

Arc Length s of a Curve

The
Thelength
length(10)
(10)ofofaacurve
curveCCisisaaconstant,
constant,aapositive
positive
number.
number.But Butififwewereplace
replacethe
thefixed
fixedbbin
in(10)
(10)with
withaa
variable
variablet,t,the
theintegral
integralbecomes
becomesaafunction
functionofoft,t,denoted
denotedby
by
s(t)
s(t)and
andcalled
calledthethearc
arclength
lengthfunction
functionororsimply
simplythe thearc
arc
length
lengthof ofC.
C.Thus
Thus
 dr 
t
(11)
(11) s(t )   r   r dt  r    .
a  dt 
Here the variable of integration is denoted by t
Here the variable of integration is denoted by
because
becausettisisnow
nowused
usedininthe
theupper
upperlimit.
limit.

Arc Length s of a Curve

Linear
LinearElement
Elementds.
ds.
ItItisiscustomary
customaryto
towrite
write
(13*)
(13*) dr
dr==[dx,
[dx,dy,
dy,dz]
dz]==dx
dxii++dy
dyjj++dz
dzkk
and
and
(13) ds 2= dr • dr = dx 2+ dy 2+ dz .2
2 2 2 2
(13) ds = dr • dr = dx + dy + dz .
ds
dsisiscalled
calledthe
thelinear
linearelement
elementof ofC.
C.

Arc Length s of a Curve (continued)

Arc
ArcLength
Lengthas asParameter.
Parameter.
The
Theuse
useof
ofssin
in(1)
(1)instead
insteadof
ofan
anarbitrary
arbitraryttsimplifies
simplifies
various
variousformulas.
formulas.ForForthe
theunit
unittangent
tangentvector
vector(8)
(8)we
we
simply
simplyobtain
obtain
(14)
(14) u(s)
u(s)==r′(s).
r′(s).
Indeed,
Indeed,|r′(s)|
|r′(s)|==(ds/ds)
(ds/ds)==11in
in(12)
(12)shows
showsthat
thatr′(s)
r′(s)isisaaunit
unit
vector.
vector.

Curves in Mechanics. Velocity. Acceleration

Curves
Curvesplayplayaabasic
basicrole
rolein
inmechanics,
mechanics,wherewheretheytheymay
may
serve
serveasaspaths
pathsofofmoving
movingbodies.
bodies.Then
Thensuch suchaacurve
curveCC
should
shouldbe berepresented
representedby byaaparametric
representationr(t) r(t)
with
withtime
timettasasparameter.
parameter.TheThetangent
tangentvector
vector(7)(7)of
ofCCisis
then
thencalled
calledthethevelocity
velocityvector
vectorvvbecause,
because,being beingtangent,
tangent,itit
points
pointsininthe
theinstantaneous
instantaneousdirection
directionofofmotion
motionand andits
its
length v  r   r  r   ds / dt ;
lengthgives
givesthe
thespeed
speed
see
see(12).
(12).The
Thesecond
secondderivative
derivativeofofr(t)
r(t)isiscalled
calledthe
the
acceleration
accelerationvector
vectorand
andisisdenoted
denotedby bya.a.Its
Itslength
length|a|
|a|isis
called
calledthe
theacceleration
accelerationofofthe
themotion.
motion.ThusThus
(16)
(16) v(t)
v(t)==r′(t),
r′(t), a(t)
a(t)==v′(t)
v′(t)==r"(t).
r"(t).

Tangential
Tangentialand
andNormal
NormalAcceleration.
Acceleration.
Whereas
Whereasthe
thevelocity
velocityvector
vectorisisalways
alwaystangent
tangenttotothe
thepath
path
of
ofmotion,
motion,the
theacceleration
accelerationvector
vectorwill
willgenerally
generallyhave
have
another
anotherdirection.
direction.We
Wecan
cansplit
splitthe
theacceleration
accelerationvector
vectorinto
into
two
twodirectional
directionalcomponents,
components,thatthatis,
is,
(17)
(17) aa==aatan ++aanorm, ,
tan norm
where
wherethe
thetangential
tangentialacceleration
accelerationvector
vectoraatantanisistangent
tangentto
to
the
thepath
path(or,
(or,sometimes,
sometimes,0)0)and andthe
thenormal
normalacceleration
acceleration
vector
vectoraanorm isisnormal
normal (perpendicular)
(perpendicular) to
tothe
the path
path (or,
(or,
norm
sometimes,
sometimes,0). 0).

Now
Nowthe thelength
length|a |atantan||isisthe
theabsolute
absolutevalue
valueof
ofthe
the
projection
projectionof ofaain
inthe
thedirection
directionof ofv,v,given
givenbyby(11)
(11)in
inSec.
Sec.
9.2
9.2with
withbb==v;v;that
thatis, is,|a |a· ·v|/
|atantan||==|a v|/|v|.
|v|.Hence
Henceaatantanisisthis
this
expression
expressiontimestimesthe
theunit unitvectorvector(1/|v|)v
(1/|v|)vin
inthe
thedirection
direction
of
ofv,v,that
thatis,
is,
a v
(18*) a tan  v. Also, a norm  a  a tan .
(18*) v v

EXAMPLE 7 Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force

The
Thevector
vectorfunction
function
r(t)
r(t)==[R
[Rcos
cosωt,
ωt,RRsin
sinωt]
ωt]==RRcos
cosωt
ωtii++RRsin
sinωt
ωtjj
(Fig. 210)
(Fig. 210)
(with
(withfixed
fixediiand
andj)j)represents
representsaacircle
circleCCof
ofradius
radiusRRwith
with
center
centeratatthe
theorigin
originofofthe
thexy-plane
xy-planeand
anddescribes
describesthe
themotion
motion
of
ofaasmall
smallbody
bodyBBcounterclockwise
counterclockwisearound
aroundthe
thecircle.
circle.
Differentiation
Differentiationgives
givesthe
thevelocity
velocityvector
vector
vv==r′r′==[−Rω
[−Rωsin
sinωt,
ωt,Rω
Rωcos
cosωt]
ωt]==−Rω
−Rωsin
sinωt
ωtii++Rω
Rωcos
cosωt
ωtjj
(Fig. 210)
(Fig. 210)
vvisistangent
tangentto
toC.
C.

Centripetal Acceleration. Centrifugal Force
Its
Itsmagnitude,
magnitude,the
thespeed,
speed,isis
v  r   r   r   R .
Hence
Henceititisisconstant.
constant.The Thespeed
speeddivided
dividedby
bythe thedistance
distanceRR
from
fromthe thecenter
centerisiscalled
calledthe theangular
angularspeed.
speed.ItItequals
equalsω,ω,so
so
that
thatititisisconstant,
constant,too.
too.Differentiating
Differentiatingthe
thevelocity
velocityvector,
vector,
we
weobtain
obtainthe theacceleration
acceleration vector
vector2
(19)
(19) aa==v′v′==[−Rω [−Rω
2
2cos ωt, −Rω 2sin ωt]
cos ωt, −Rω2 sin ωt]
==−Rω
−Rω2cos
2
cosωt
ωtii−−Rω
Rω2sin
sinωt
ωtj.j.

Fig. 210. Centripetal acceleration a

Fig. 210. Centripetal acceleration a

This
This shows that a = −ωr2r(Fig.
shows that a = −ω 2
(Fig.210),
210),sosothat
thatthere
thereisisan
an
acceleration
accelerationtoward
towardthethecenter,
center,called
calledthe
thecentripetal
centripetal
acceleration
accelerationof ofthe
themotion.
motion.ItItoccurs
occursbecause
becausethe thevelocity
velocity
vector
vectorisischanging
changingdirection
directionatat2aaconstant
constant rate.
rate.Its
Its
magnitude
magnitudeisisconstant,
constant,|a||a|==ωω|r|
2
|r|==ωωR.
2
2 Multiplying a by
R. Multiplying a by
the
themass
massmmof ofB,B,we
weget
getthethecentripetal
centripetalforceforcema.
ma.TheThe
opposite
oppositevector
vector−ma −maisiscalled
calledthe
thecentrifugal
centrifugalforce.
force.AtAteach
each
instant
instantthese
thesetwotwoforces
forcesarearein
inequilibrium.
equilibrium.
We
Wesee
seethat
thatininthis
thismotion
motionthe theacceleration
accelerationvector
vectorisis
normal
normal(perpendicular)
(perpendicular)to toC;
C;hence
hencethere
thereisisno
notangential
tangential
acceleration.
acceleration.
EXAMPLE 8
Superposition of Rotations. Coriolis Acceleration
AAprojectile
projectileisismoving
movingwith
withconstant
constantspeed
speedalong
alongaameridian
meridian
of
ofthe
therotating
rotatingEarth
Earthin
inFig.
Fig.211.
211.Find
Findits
itsacceleration.
acceleration.
Fig. 211. Example 8. Superposition of two rotations

Fig. 211. Example 8. Superposition of two rotations
Solution.
Solution.LetLetx,x,y,y,zzbe
beaafixed
fixedCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystemsystem
in
inspace,
space,with
withunit
unitvectors
vectorsi,i,j,j,kkin
inthe
thedirections
directionsof ofthe
the
axes.
axes.Let
Letthe
theEarth,
Earth,together
togetherwithwithaaunit
unitvector
vectorb, b,beberotating
rotating
about
aboutthe
thez-axis
z-axiswith
withangular
angularspeedspeedωω>>00(see
(seeExample
Example7). 7).
Since
Sincebbisisrotating
rotatingtogether
togetherwith
withthe theEarth,
Earth,ititisisof
ofthe
theform
form
b(t)
b(t)==cos
cosωtωtii++sin
sinωt
ωtj.j.
Let
Letthe
theprojectile
projectilebe
bemoving
movingon onthe
themeridian
meridianwhose
whoseplane
planeisis
spanned
spannedbybybband
andkk(Fig.
(Fig.211)
211)with
withconstant
constantangular
angular
speed
speedωω>>0.0.Then
Thenits
itsposition
positionvector
vectorininterms
termsof
ofbband
andkkisis
r(t)
r(t)==RRcos
cosγt
γtb(t)
b(t)++RRsin
sinγt
γtkk
(R
(R==Radius
Radiusof
ofthe
theEarth).
Earth).
Solution.
(continued 1)
We
Wehave
havefinished
finishedsetting
settingup
upthe
themodel.
model.Next,
Next,we weapply
apply
vector
vectorcalculus
calculusto toobtain
obtainthe
thedesired
desiredacceleration
accelerationof ofthe
the
projectile.
projectile.Our
Ourresult
resultwill
willbe
beunexpected—and
unexpected—andhighly highly
relevant
relevantfor
forair
airand
andspace
spacetravel.
travel.The
Thefirst
firstand
andsecond
second
derivatives
derivativesof ofbbwith
withrespect
respecttotottare
are
b(tt)   sin  i   cos tj
(20)
(20) b(tt)   2 cos  i   2 sin ttj   2 b( ).

Solution.
(continued 2)
The
Thefirst
firstand
andsecond
secondderivatives
derivativesof
ofr(t)
r(t)with
withrespect
respectto
tottare
are
v  r (t )  R cos  tb   R sin  tb   R cos  tk
(21)
(21) a  v(t )
 R cos  tb  2 R sin  tb   2 R cos  tb   2 R sin  tk
 R cos  tb  2 R sin  tb   2 r.
By
By analogy with Example 7 and because of b" = −ωb
analogy with Example 7 and because of b" = −ω 2
2 in (20)
b in (20)
we
weconclude
concludethat
thatthe
thefirst
firstterm
termininaa(involving
(involvingωωininb"!)
b"!)isis
the
thecentripetal
centripetalacceleration
accelerationdueduetotothe
therotation
rotationof
ofthe
theEarth.
Earth.
Solution.
(continued 3)
Similarly,
Similarly,the
thethird
thirdterm
termininthe
thelast
lastline
line(involving
(involvingγ!) γ!)isisthe
the
centripetal
centripetalacceleration
accelerationdue duetotothe
themotion
motionof ofthe
theprojectile
projectile
on
onthe
themeridian
meridianM Mof ofthe
therotating
rotatingEarth.
Earth.
The
Thesecond,
second,unexpected
unexpectedterm term−2γR
−2γRsinsinγt
γtb′b′in
inaaisiscalled
called
the
theCoriolis
Coriolisacceleration
acceleration(Fig.
(Fig.211)
211)and
andisisdue
dueto tothe
the
interaction
interactionof
ofthe
thetwo
tworotations.
rotations.

Solution.
(continued 4)
On
Onthe
theNorthern
NorthernHemisphere,
Hemisphere,sin sinγt γt>>00(for (fortt>>0;0;also
alsoγγ>>00
by
byassumption),
assumption),so sothat
thataacorcorhas
hasthe
thedirection
directionof of−b′,
−b′,that thatis,
is,
opposite
oppositeto tothe
therotation
rotationof ofthe theEarth.
Earth.|a |acorcor||isismaximum
maximumatat
the
theNorth
NorthPolePoleand
andzero
zeroatatthe theequator.
equator.The Theprojectile
projectileBBof of
mass
massmm0 0experiences
experiencesaaforceforce−m −m0a0acorcoropposite
oppositeto tomm0a0acorcor, ,which
which
tends
tendstotolet
letBBdeviate
deviatefrom
fromM Mtotothetheright
right(and (andin inthe
the
Southern
SouthernHemisphere,
Hemisphere,where wheresin sinγt γt<<0,0,to tothetheleft).
left).This This
deviation
deviationhashasbeen
beenobserved
observedfor formissiles,
missiles,rockets, rockets,shells,
shells,
and
andatmospheric
atmosphericairflow.
airflow.

9.6
9.6 Calculus
Calculus Review:
Review:
Functions
Functions of
of Several
Several Variables.
Variables.
Optional
Optional

9.6 Calculus Review: Functions of Several Variables. Optional
Chain Rules
Theorem 1
Chain
ChainRule
Rule
Let
Letww==f(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)be
becontinuous
continuousandandhave
havecontinuous
continuousfirst
firstpartial
partial
derivatives
derivativesin inaadomain
domainDDininxyz-space.
xyz-space.Let
Letxx==x(u,
x(u,v),
v),yy==y(u,
y(u,v),
v),
zz==z(u,
z(u,v)
v)bebefunctions
functionsthat
thatare
arecontinuous
continuousandandhave
havefirst
firstpartial
partial
derivatives
domainBBininthe
theuv-plane,
uv-plane,where
whereBBisissuch
suchthat
thatfor
for
every
everypoint
point(u, (u,v)v)in
inB,
B,the
thecorresponding
correspondingpoint
point[x(u,
[x(u,v),
v),y(u,
y(u,v),
v),
z(u,
z(u,v)]
v)]lies
liesininD.D.See
SeeFig.
Fig.213.
213.

Chain Rules
Chain
ChainRule
Rule(continued 1)
(continued 1)
Fig. 213. Notations in Theorem 1

Fig. 213. Notations in Theorem 1
Chain Rules
Chain
ChainRule
Rule(continued 2)
(continued 2)
Then
Thenthe
thefunction
function
ww==f(x(u,
f(x(u,v),
v),y(u,
y(u,v),
v),z(u,
z(u,v))
v))
isisdefined
definedininB,
B,has
hasfirst
firstpartial
partialderivatives
derivativeswith
withrespect
respecttotouuand
andvvinin
B,B,and
and
w w x w y w z
  
u x u y u z u
(1)
(1) w w x w y w z
   .
v x v y v z v

In
Inthis
thistheorem,
theorem,aadomain
domainDDisisan anopen
openconnected
connectedpointpointset
set
in
inxyz-space,
xyz-space,where
where“connected”
“connected”means meansthatthatany
anytwotwopoints
points
of
ofDDcan
canbe
bejoined
joinedby byaabroken
brokenlinelineof
offinitely
finitelymany
manylinear
linear
segments
segmentsall allofofwhose
whosepoints
pointsbelong
belongto toD.
D.“Open”
“Open”meansmeans
that
thatevery
everypoint
pointPPof ofDDhas
hasaaneighborhood
neighborhood(a(alittlelittleball
ballwith
with
center
centerP)P)all
allofofwhose
whosepoints
pointsbelong
belongto toD.
D.For
Forexample,
example,the the
interior
interiorof
ofaacube
cubeororof
ofan
anellipsoid
ellipsoid(the
(thesolid
solidwithout
withoutthe the
boundary
boundarysurface)
surface)isisaadomain.
domain.
In
Incalculus,
calculus,x,x,y,y,zzare
areoften
oftencalled
calledthetheintermediate
intermediate
variables,
variables,in incontrast
contrastwith
withthe
theindependent
independentvariables
variablesu,u,vv
and
andthe
thedependent
dependentvariable
variablew. w.

Special
SpecialCases
Casesof
ofPractical
PracticalInterest
Interest
IfIfww==f(x,
f(x,y)y)and
andxx==x(u,
x(u,v),
v),yy==y(u,
y(u,v)v)as
asbefore,
before,then
then(1)
(1)
becomes
becomes
w w x w y
 
u x u y u
(2)
(2) w w x w y
  .
v x v y v

Special
SpecialCases
Casesof
ofPractical
PracticalInterest
Interest(continued 1)
(continued 1)
IfIfww==f(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)and
andxx==x(t),
x(t),yy==y(t),
y(t),zz==z(t),
z(t),then
then(1)
(1)gives
gives
dw w dx w dy w dz
(3)    .
(3) dt x dt y dtz  dt
IfIfww==f(x,
f(x,y)y)and
andxx==x(t),
x(t),yy==y(t),
y(t),then
then(3)
(3)reduces
reducesto
to
dw w dx w dy
(4)   .
(4) dt x dt y dt
Finally,
Finally,the
thesimplest
simplestcase
caseww==f(x),
f(x),xx==x(t)
x(t)gives
gives
dw w dx
(5)  .
(5) dt x dt

Mean Value Theorems

Theorem 2
Mean
MeanValue
ValueTheorem
Theorem
Let
Letf f(x,(x,y,y,z)z)bebecontinuous
continuousand andhavehavecontinuous
continuousfirst firstpartial
partial
derivatives
domainDDininxyz-space.
xyz-space.Let LetPP0:0:(x
(x0,0,yy0,0,zz0)0)and
and
P:
P:(x(x0 0++h,h,yy0 0++k,k,zz0 0++l l))be
bepoints
pointsin inDDsuchsuchthat
thatthethestraight
straightline line
segment
segmentPP0P P joining
joining these
these points
points lies
lies entirely
entirely in
in D.
D. Then
Then
0
ff  f
(7) f ( x  h , y  k , z  l )  f ( x , y , z )  h  k  l ,
(7)
0 0 0 0 0 0
x y z
the
thepartial
partialderivatives
derivativesbeing
beingevaluated
evaluatedatataasuitable
suitablepoint
pointofofthat
that
segment.
segment.
9.7
9.7 Gradient
Gradient of
of aa Scalar
Scalar Field.
Field.
Directional
Directional Derivative
Derivative

9.7 Gradient of a Scalar Field. Directional Derivative
Definition 1
Gradient
Gradient
The
Thesetting
settingisisthat
thatwe
wearearegiven
givenaascalar
scalarfunction
functionf(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)that
that
isisdefined
definedand
anddifferentiable
differentiablein inaadomain
domainin in3-space
3-spacewith
with
Cartesian
Cartesiancoordinates
coordinatesx,x,y,y,z.z.We Wedenote
denotethethegradient
gradientof ofthat
that
function
functionbybygrad or ff (read nabla ).
gradf for
Then
Thenthe
thegradient
gradientof off(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)isisdefined
definedasasthe
thevector
vectorfunction
function
 ff  ff  ff 
(1) grad ff     , ,   i  j  k.
(1)  x y z  x y z

The notation f is suggested by the differential operator 

(read nabla f ) defined by
  
(1*)   i  j  k.
(1*) x y z

Directional Derivative
Definition 2
Directional
DirectionalDerivative
Derivative
The
Thedirectional
directionalderivative
derivativeDDbbf for
ordf/ds
df/dsof
ofaafunction
functionf(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)
atataapoint
pointPPin
inthe
thedirection
directionof
ofaavector
vectorbbisisdefined
definedby
by(see
(see
Fig.
Fig.215)
215)
dff (Q)  f ( P)
(2) Db f   lim .
(2) ds s  0 s
Here
HereQQisisaavariable
variablepoint
pointononthe
thestraight
straightline
lineLLininthe
the
direction
directionof ofb,
b,and
and|s|
|s|isisthe
thedistance
distancebetween
betweenPPand andQ.Q.
Also,
Also,ss>>00ififQQlies
liesin
inthe
thedirection
directionofofbb(as
(asin inFig.
Fig.215),
215),ss<<00
ififQQlies
liesin
inthe
thedirection
directionof of−b,
−b,and
andss==00ififQQ==P.P.
Fig. 215. Directional derivative

Fig. 215. Directional derivative
The
Theline
lineLLisisgiven
givenby
by
(3)
(3) r(s)
r(s)==x(s)
x(s)ii++y(s)
y(s)jj++z(s)
z(s)kk==pp0 ++sb
sb (|b|
(|b|==1)1)
0
where
wherepp0 0isisthe
theposition
positionvector
vectorof
ofP.
P.
Hence,
Hence,assuming
assumingthat
thatf fhas
hascontinuous
continuouspartial
partialderivatives
derivatives
and
andapplying
applyingthe
thechain
chainrule
rule[formula
[formula(3)
(3)in
inthe
theprevious
previous
section],
section],we
weobtain
obtain
dff  ff 
(4)
(4) Db f   x  y  z
ds x y z
where
whereprimes primesdenote
denotederivatives
derivativeswith
withrespect
respecttotoss(which
(which
are
aretaken
takenatatss==0). 0).But
Buthere,
here,differentiating
differentiating(3)
(3)gives
gives
r′r′==x′x′ii++y′y′jj++z′z′kk==b.
b.

Hence
Hence(4) (4)isissimply
simplythe theinner
innerproduct
productof
ofgrad
gradf fand
andbb[see
[see
(2),
(2),Sec.
Sec.9.2];
9.2];that
thatis,
is,
df
(5)
(5) Db ff   b  grad ( b  1).
ds
ATTENTION!
ATTENTION!IfIfthe thedirection
directionisisgiven
givenby
byaavector
vectoraaof
ofany
any
length
length(≠
(≠0),
0),then
then
df 1
(5*)
(5*) Da ff   a  grad .
ds a

Gradient Is a Vector. Maximum Increase

Theorem 1
Use
Useof
ofGradient:
Gradient:Direction
Directionof
ofMaximum
MaximumIncrease
Increase
Let
Letf(P)
f(P)==f(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)be
beaascalar
scalarfunction
functionhaving
havingcontinuous
continuousfirstfirst
partial
partialderivatives
derivativesin insome
somedomain
domainBBininspace.
space.Then
Thengrad
gradf fexists
existsin
in
BBand
andisisaavector,
vector,that
thatis,
is,its
itslength
lengthand
anddirection
directionare
areindependent
independentofof
the
theparticular
particularchoice
choiceofofCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates.
coordinates.IfIfgrad
gradf(P)
f(P)≠≠00atat
some
somepoint
pointP,P,itithas
hasthe
thedirection
directionofofmaximum
maximumincrease
increaseofoff fatatP.
P.

Gradient as Surface Normal Vector

Theorem 2
Gradient
Gradientas
asSurface
SurfaceNormal
NormalVector
Vector
Let
Letbebeaadifferentiable
differentiablescalar
scalarfunction
functionin inspace.
space.Let
Letf(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)==cc==
const
constrepresent
representaasurface
surfaceS.S.Then
Thenififthe
thegradient
gradientofoff fatataapoint
pointPP
ofofSSisisnot
notthe
thezero
zerovector,
vector,ititisisaanormal
normalvector
vectorofofSSatatP.P.
Fig. 216. Gradient as surface normal vector

Fig. 216. Gradient as surface normal vector
EXAMPLE 2 Gradient as Surface Normal Vector. Cone

Find
Find aaunit
unitnormal
normal vector
vectornnofofthe
the cone
coneof
ofrevolution
revolution
zz2==4(x
4(x2++yy)2)atatthe pointP:
thepoint P:(1,
(1,0,0,2).
2 2 2
2).
Solution.
Solution.
The cone is the level surface f = 0 of f(x, y, z) = 4(x2
2+ y )
2
2 − z .2
The cone is the level surface f = 0 of f(x, y, z) = 4(x + y ) − z .
2
Thus
Thus(Fig.
(Fig.217)
217)
grad
gradf f==[8x,
[8x,8y,
8y,−2z],
−2z], gradgradf(P)
f(P)==[8,
[8,0,0,4]
4]
1  2 1 
n grad f ( P)   , 0,   .
grad f ( P )  5 5
nnpoints
pointsdownward
downwardsince
sinceitithas
hasaanegative
negativez-component.
z-component.The
The
other
otherunit
unitnormal
normalvector
vectorof
ofthe
thecone
coneatatPPisis−n.
−n.
EXAMPLE 2 Gradient as Surface Normal Vector. Cone

Solution.
Solution.(continued)
(continued)
Fig. 217. Cone and unit normal vector n

Fig. 217. Cone and unit normal vector n
Vector Fields That Are Gradients of Scalar

Fields (“Potentials”)
AtAtthe
thebeginning
beginningof ofthis
thissection
sectionwe wementioned
mentionedthat thatsome
some
vector
vectorfields
fieldshave
havethe
theadvantage
advantagethatthatthey
theycan
canbebeobtained
obtained
from
fromscalar
scalarfields,
fields,which
whichcancanbe beworked
workedwithwithmore
moreeasily.
easily.
Such
Suchaavector
vectorfield
fieldisisgiven
givenbybyaavector
vectorfunction
functionv(P),
v(P),which
which
isisobtained
obtainedas asthe
thegradient
gradientof ofaascalar
scalarfunction,
function,say,
say,v(P)
v(P)==
grad
gradf(P).
f(P).The
Thefunction
functionisiscalled
calledaapotential
potentialfunction
functionor oraa
potential
potentialof ofv(P).
v(P).Such
Suchaav(P)
v(P)and
andthe
thecorresponding
correspondingvectorvector
field
fieldare
arecalled
calledconservative
conservativebecause
becausein insuch
suchaavector
vectorfield,
field,
energy
energyisisconserved;
conserved;thatthatis,
is,no
noenergy
energyisislost
lost(or
(orgained)
gained)inin
displacing
displacingaabody
body(or (oraacharge
chargein inthe
thecase
caseof
ofananelectrical
electrical
field)
field)from
fromaapoint
pointPPto toanother
anotherpoint
pointininthe
thefield
fieldand
andback
back
totoP.
P.We
Weshow
showthis
thisininSec.
Sec.10.2.
10.2.
Vector Fields That Are Gradients of Scalar

Fields (“Potentials”)
(continued)
(continued)
Conservative
Conservativefields
fieldsplay
playaacentral
centralrole
rolein
inphysics
physicsand
and
engineering.
engineering.AAbasic
basicapplication
applicationconcerns
concernsthethegravitational
gravitational
force
force(see
(seeExample
Example33in inSec.
Sec.9.4)
9.4)and
andweweshow
showthat
thatitithas
hasaa
potential
potentialwhich
whichsatisfies
satisfiesLaplace’s
Laplace’sequation,
equation,the
themost
most
important
importantpartial
partialdifferential
differentialequation
equationin inphysics
physicsand
andits its
applications.
applications.

Theorem 3
Gravitational
GravitationalField.
Field.Laplace’s
Laplace’sEquation
Equation
The
Theforce
forceofofattraction
attraction
c  x  x0 y  y0 z  z0 
(8)
(8) p   3 r  c  3 , 3
, 3 
r  r r r 
between
betweentwo twoparticles
particlesatatpoints
pointsPP0:0:(x(x0,0,yy0,0,zz0)0)and
andP:P:(x,
(x,y,y,z)z)
(as
(asgiven
givenby byNewton’s
Newton’slaw lawof ofgravitation)
gravitation)has hasthe
thepotential
potential
f(x,
f(x,y,y,z)z)==c/r,
c/r,where
whererr(>(>0)
0)isisthe
thedistance
distancebetween betweenPP0 andandP. P.
0

Gravitational
GravitationalField.
Field.Laplace’s
Laplace’sEquation
Equation
Thus
Thuspp==grad
gradf f==grad
grad(c/r).
(c/r).This
Thispotential
potentialf fisisaasolution
solutionofof
Laplace’s
Laplace’sequation
equation
 2
ff  2
 2
f
(9)
(9)  f  2  2  2  0.
2
x y z
[[ 2 f (read
(readnabla
nablasquared
squaredf f))isiscalled
calledthe
theLaplacian
Laplacianof
off.]
f.]

9.8
9.8 Divergence
Divergence of
of aa Vector
Vector Field
Field

9.8 Divergence of a Vector Field
To
Tobegin,
begin,letletv(x,
v(x,y,y,z)z)be
beaadifferentiable
differentiablevector
vectorfunction,
function,
where
wherex,x,y,y,zzare
areCartesian
Cartesiancoordinates,
coordinates,and
andlet
letvv1,1,vv2,2,vv3 3be
bethe
the
components
componentsof ofv.v.Then
Thenthe thefunction
function
v1 v2 v3
(1) div v   
(1) x y z
isiscalled
calledthe
thedivergence
divergenceof
ofvvororthe
thedivergence
divergenceofofthe
thevector
vectorfield
field
defined
definedby
byv.v.For
Forexample,
example,ifif
vv==[3xz, 2xy, −yz 2
]
2 = 3xzi + 2xy j − yz k,
2
[3xz, 2xy, −yz ] = 3xzi + 2xy j − yz2k,
then
then div
divvv==3z
3z++2x
2x−−2yz.
2yz.

Another
Anothercommon
commonnotation
notationforforthe
thedivergence
divergenceisis
  
div v    v   , ,    v1 , v2 , v3 
 x y z 
   
  i + j  k    v1i  v2 j  v3 k 
 x y z 
v1 v2 v3
   ,
x y z
with
withthe
theunderstanding
understandingthatthatthe
the“product”
“product”(∂/∂x
(∂/∂x)v)v1 1in
inthethedot
dot
product
productmeans
meansthe
thepartial
partialderivative
derivative∂v
∂v1/∂x,
/∂x,etc.
etc.This
This isisaa
convenient notation, but nothing more.
1
Note that  v
convenient notation, but nothingmore.
ff meansNote
the that
vector grad
means the scalar div v, whereas
means the scalar div v, whereas
defined
definedin
inSec.
Sec.9.7.
9.7.
Theorem 1
Invariance
Invarianceof ofthe
theDivergence
Divergence
The
Thedivergence
divergencediv divvvisisaascalar
scalarfunction,
function,that
thatis,
is,its
itsvalues
valuesdepend
depend
only
onlyon onthethepoints
pointsin inspace
space(and,
(and,ofofcourse,
course,on
onv)
v)but
butnot
noton
onthe
the
choice
choiceofofthe thecoordinates
coordinatesin in(1),
(1),so
sothat
thatwith
withrespect
respecttotoother
other
Cartesian
coordinatesx*, x*,y*,
y*,z*
z*and
andcorresponding
correspondingcomponents
components
vv1*,*,vv2*,*,vv3**ofofv,v,
1 2 3
v1 v2 v3
(2) div v       .
(2) x y z

Let
Letf f(x,
(x,y,y,z)z)be
beaatwice
twicedifferentiable
differentiablescalar
scalarfunction.
function.Then
Then
its
itsgradient
gradientexists,
exists, 
ff  ff  ff 
v  grad f   , ,   i + j k
 x y z  x y z
and
andwe wecancandifferentiate
differentiateonce
oncemore,
more,the
thefirst
firstcomponent
componentwith
with
respect
respectto tox,x,thethesecond
secondwithwithrespect
respectto toy,y,the
thethird
thirdwith
with
respect
respectto toz,z,and
andthen
thenform
formthethedivergence,
2divergence,
 ff  2 2 f
div v  div (grad f )  2  2  2 .
x y z
Hence
Hencewe wehavehavethe
thebasic
basicresult
resultthat
thatthe
thedivergence
divergenceofofthe
the
gradient
gradientisisthetheLaplacian
Laplacian(Sec.
(Sec.9.7),
9.7),
(3) div(grad ff)   2 .
(3)

EXAMPLE 2 Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

Physical Meaning of the Divergence
We
Weconsider
considerthe
themotion
motionof ofaafluid
fluidininaaregion
regionRRhaving
havingno no
sources
sourcesororsinks
sinksininR,R,that
thatis,
is,no
nopoints
pointsatatwhich
whichfluid
fluidisis
produced
producedor ordisappears.
disappears.The Theconcept
conceptof offluid
fluidstate
stateisismeant
meant
to
tocover
coveralso
alsogases
gasesandandvapors.
vapors.Fluids
Fluidsininthe
therestricted
restrictedsense,
sense,
or
orliquids,
liquids,such
suchas aswater
waterororoil,
oil,have
havevery
verysmall
small
compressibility,
compressibility,which
whichcancanbe beneglected
neglectedin inmany
manyproblems.
problems.
In
Incontrast,
contrast,gases
gasesand
andvapors
vaporshavehavehigh
highcompressibility.
compressibility.
Their
Theirdensity
densityρρ(=(=mass
massperperunit
unitvolume)
volume)depends
dependson onthethe
coordinates
coordinatesx,x,y,y,zzin
inspace
spaceand andmaymayalso
alsodepend
dependon ontime
timet.t.
We
Weassume
assumethat
thatour
ourfluid
fluidisiscompressible.
compressible.We Weconsider
considerthethe
flow
flowthrough
throughaarectangular
rectangularbox boxBBof ofsmall
smalledges Δx,Δy,
edgesΔx, Δy,Δz
Δz
parallel
parallelto
tothe
thecoordinate
coordinateaxes axesas asshown
shownin inFig.
Fig.218.
218.
EXAMPLE 2 (continued) Flow of a Compressible Fluid.

(continued 1)
(continued 1)
(Here
(HereΔΔisisaastandard
standardnotation notationfor forsmall
smallquantities
quantitiesand,
and,of
of
course,
course,has
hasnothing
nothingto tododowithwiththe thenotation
notationfor
forthe
theLaplacian
Laplacian
in
in(11)
(11)of
ofSec.
Sec.9.7.)9.7.)
The
Thebox
boxBBhas hasthe thevolume
volumeΔV ΔV==Δx Δx++ΔyΔy++Δz.
Δz.
Let
Letvv==[v
[v1,1,vv2,2,vv3]3]==vv1i1i++vv2j2j++vv3k k be
bethe
thevelocity
velocityvector
vectorof
ofthe
the
3
motion.
motion.We Weset set
(4)
(4) uu==ρv
ρv==[u [u1,1,uu2,2,uu3]3]==uu1i1i++uu2j2j++uu3k
3k
and
andassume
assumethat
thatuuand
andvvare arecontinuously
continuouslydifferentiable
differentiable
vector
vectorfunctions
functionsofofx,x,y,y,z,z,and
andt,t,that thatis,is,they
theyhavehavefirst
first
partial
partialderivatives
derivativeswhich
whichare arecontinuous.
continuous.

(continued 2) Let us calculate the change in the mass included in
(continued 2) Let us calculate the change in the mass included in
BBby
byconsidering
consideringthe theflux
fluxacross
acrossthe theboundary,
boundary,that thatis,
is,the
the
total
totalloss
lossofofmass
massleaving
leavingBBperperunit
unittime.
time.Consider
Considerthe theflow
flow
through
throughthe theleft
leftofofthe
thethree
threefaces
facesof ofBBthat
thatare
arevisible
visiblein inFig.
Fig.
218,
218,whose
whoseareaareaisisΔxΔz.
ΔxΔz.Since
Sincethethevectors
vectorsvv1i1iand
andvv3k are
3 are
k
parallel
paralleltotothat
thatface,
face,the
thecomponents
componentsvv1 1and andvv2 2of
ofvvcontribute
contribute
nothing
nothingto tothis
thisflow.
flow.Hence
Hencethethemass
massof offluid
fluidentering
entering
through
throughthatthatface
faceduring
duringaashort
shorttimetimeinterval
intervalΔt Δtisisgiven
given
approximately
approximatelyby by
(ρv
(ρv2)y) Δx
ΔxΔzΔzΔtΔt==(u(u2))y Δx
ΔxΔzΔzΔt,Δt,
2 y 2 y
where
wherethethesubscript
subscriptyyindicates
indicatesthat
thatthis
thisexpression
expressionrefers
refersto
to
the
theleft
leftface.
face.

(continued 3)
(continued 3)
The
Themass massof offluid
fluidleaving
leavingthethebox
boxBBthrough
throughthe theopposite
oppositefaceface
during
duringthe thesame
sametime
timeinterval
intervalisisapproximately
approximately
(u(u2)2)y y+ +ΔyΔyΔx
ΔxΔzΔzΔt,
Δt,where
wherethethesubscript
subscriptyy++Δy Δyindicates
indicatesthat that
this
thisexpression
expressionrefers
referstotothe
theright
rightface
face(which
(whichisisnot notvisible
visiblein in
Fig.
Fig.218). 218).The Thedifference
difference
u2
u2 x y t  V t  u2  (u2 ) y y  (u2 ) y 
y  
isisthe
theapproximate
approximatelosslossof
ofmass.
mass.TwoTwosimilar
similarexpressions
expressionsare are
obtained
obtainedby byconsidering
consideringthe theother
othertwo
twopairs
pairsofofparallel
parallelfaces
faces
ofofB. B.


(continued 4)
(continued 4)
IfIfwe
weadd
addthese
thesethree
threeexpressions,
expressions,we
wefind
findthat
thatthe
thetotal
totalloss
loss
ofofmass
massin
inBBduring
duringthe
thetime
timeinterval
intervalΔt
Δtisisapproximately
approximately
 u1 u2 u3 
 x  y  z  V t ,
 
where
where
Δu
Δu1 1==(u
(u1)1)x x+ +ΔxΔx−−(u
(u1)1)x x and
and Δu Δu3 3==(u
(u3)3)z z+ +ΔzΔz−−(u
(u3)3z).z.
This
Thisloss
lossofofmass
massin inBBisiscaused
causedbybythethetime
timerate rateof ofchange
changeof
of
the
thedensity
densityand andisisthus thus equal
equalto
to

 V t.
t

(continued 5)
(continued 5)
Fig. 218. Physical interpretation of the divergence

Fig. 218. Physical interpretation of the divergence

(continued 6)
(continued 6)
IfIfwe
weequate
equateboth
bothexpressions,
expressions,divide
dividethe
theresulting
resultingequation
equation
bybyΔV
ΔVΔt,
Δt,and
andlet
letΔx,
Δx,Δy,
Δy,Δz,
Δz,andandΔtΔtapproach
approachzero,
zero,then
thenwe
we
obtain
obtain 
div u  div (  v )  
or t
or
(5) 
(5)  div(  v )  0.
t
This
Thisimportant
importantrelation
relationisiscalled
calledthethecondition
conditionfor
forthe
the
conservation
conservationofofmass
massororthe
thecontinuity
continuityequation
equationofofaa
compressible
compressiblefluid
fluidflow.
flow.

(continued 7)
(continued 7)
IfIfthe
theflow
flowisissteady,
steady,thatthatis,
is,independent
independentof oftime,
time,then
then
∂ρ/∂t
∂ρ/∂t==00and
andthethecontinuity
continuityequation
equationisis
(6)
(6) div
div(ρv)
(ρv)==0.0.
IfIfthe
thedensity
densityisisconstant,
constant,so sothat
thatthe
thefluid
fluidisisincompressible,
incompressible,
then
thenequation
equation(6) (6)becomes
becomes
(7)
(7) div
divvv==0.0.
This
Thisrelation
relationisisknown
knownas asthe
thecondition
conditionof ofincompressibility.
incompressibility.
ItItexpresses
expressesthethefact
factthat
thatthe
thebalance
balanceof ofoutflow
outflowand andinflow
inflow
for
foraagiven
givenvolume
volumeelement
elementisiszerozeroatatany
anytime.
time.Clearly,
Clearly,thethe
assumption
assumptionthat thatthe
theflow
flowhas
hasno nosources
sourcesororsinks
sinksininRRisis
essential
essentialtotoour
ourargument.
argument.vvisisalso alsoreferred
referredto toas
assolenoidal.
solenoidal.

(continued 8)
(continued 8)
From
Fromthis
thisdiscussion
discussionyou
youshould
shouldconclude
concludeand
andremember
remember
that,
that,roughly
roughlyspeaking,
speaking,the
thedivergence
divergencemeasures
measuresoutflow
outflow
minus
minusinflow.
inflow.
Comment.
Comment.TheThedivergence
divergencetheorem
theoremof ofGauss,
Gauss,an
anintegral
integral
theorem
theoreminvolving
involvingthethedivergence,
divergence,follows
followsin
inthe
thenext
next
chapter
chapter(Sec.
(Sec.10.7).
10.7).

9.9
9.9 Curl
Curl of
of aa Vector
Vector Field
Field

9.9 Curl of a Vector Field
Let
Letv(x,
v(x,y,y,z)z)==[v
[v1,1,vv2,2,vv3]3]==vv1i1i++vv2 2jj++vv3kkbe
be aadifferentiable
differentiable
3
vector
vectorfunction
functionof ofthe theCartesian
coordinatesx,x,y,y,z.z.Then
Thenthethe
curl
curlofofthe
thevector
vectorfunction
functionvvor orofofthethevector
vectorfield
fieldgiven
givenby
byvvisis
defined
definedby bythe
the“symbolic”
“symbolic”determinant determinant
i j k
  
(1)
(1) curl v    v 
x y z
v1 v2 v3
 v3 v2   v1 v3   v2 v1 
   i   j    k.
 y z   z x   x y 
This
Thisisisthe
theformula
formulawhen
whenx,x,y,y,zzare
areright-handed.
right-handed.IfIfthey
theyare
are
left-handed,
left-handed,the
thedeterminant
determinanthas
hasaaminus
minussign
signin
infront.
front.
Instead
Insteadof
ofcurl
curlvvone
onealso
alsouses
usesthe
thenotation
notationrot
rotv.v.This
Thisisis
suggested
suggestedbyby“rotation,”
“rotation,”ananapplication
applicationexplored
exploredin inExample
Example
2.2.Note
Notethat
thatcurl
curlvvisisaavector,
vector,as
asshown
shownin inTheorem
Theorem3.3.
EXAMPLE 2
Rotation of a Rigid Body. Relation to the Curl
We
Wehave
haveseen
seenin
inExample
Example5,5,Sec.
Sec.9.3,
9.3,that
thataarotation
rotationof
ofaarigid
rigid
body
bodyBBabout
aboutaafixed
fixedaxis
axisin
inspace
spacecancanbebedescribed
describedbybyaa
vector
vectorwwof ofmagnitude
magnitudeωωin inthe
thedirection
directionof ofthe
theaxis
axisof
of
rotation,
rotation,where
whereω(>0)
ω(>0)isisthe
theangular
angularspeed
speedofofthe
therotation,
rotation,
and
andw wisisdirected
directedsosothat
thatthe
therotation
rotationappears
appearsclockwise
clockwiseififwe
we
look
lookin
inthe
thedirection
directionofofw.
w.

EXAMPLE 2 (continued 1)
According
Accordingto to(9),
(9),Sec.
Sec.9.3,
9.3,the
thevelocity
velocityfield
fieldofofthe
therotation
rotationcan
can
be
berepresented
representedin inthe
theform
form
vv==ww××rr
where
whererrisisthe
theposition
positionvector
vectorofofaamoving
movingpoint
pointwith
withrespect
respect
to
toaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemhaving
havingthe
theorigin
originon
onthe
theaxis
axisofof
rotation.
rotation.Let
Letususchoose
chooseright-handed
right-handedCartesian
coordinates
such
suchthat
thatthe
theaxis
axisof
ofrotation
rotationisisthe
thez-axis.
z-axis.Then
Then(see
(seeExample
Example
22in
inSec.
Sec.9.4)
9.4)
ww==[0,
[0,0,0,ω]
ω]==ωk,
ωk, vv==w w××rr==[−ωy,
[−ωy, ωx,
ωx, 0]
0]==−ωyi
−ωyi++ωxj.
ωxj.

EXAMPLE 2 (continued 2)
Hence
Hence
i j k
  
curl v   0, 0, 2   2 k  2 w.
x y z
 y  x 0
This
Thisproves
provesthe
thefollowing
followingtheorem.
theorem.

Theorem 1
Rotating
RotatingBody Bodyand andCurl
Curl
The
Thecurl
curlofofthe
thevelocity
velocityfield
fieldofofaarotating
rotatingrigid
rigidbody
bodyhas
hasthe
thedirection
direction
ofofthe
theaxis
axisofofthe
therotation,
rotation,and
andits itsmagnitude
magnitudeequals
equalstwice
twicethe
the
angular
angularspeed
speedofofthe
therotation.
rotation.

Theorem 2
Grad,
Grad,Div,Div,Curl
Curl
Gradient
Gradientfields
fieldsareareirrotational.
irrotational.That
Thatis,
is,ififaacontinuously
continuously
differentiable
vectorfunction
functionisisthe
thegradient
gradientofofaascalar
scalarfunction
functionf,f,
then
thenits
itscurl
curlisisthe
thezero
zerovector,
vector,
(2)
(2) curl
curl(grad
(gradf f))==0.0.
Furthermore,
Furthermore,thethedivergence
divergenceofofthe
thecurl
curlofofaatwice
twicecontinuously
continuously
differentiable
vectorfunction
functionvvisiszero,
zero,
(3)
(3) div
div(curl
(curlv)
v)==0.0.

Theorem 3
Invariance
Invarianceof ofthe
theCurl
Curl
curl
curlvvisisaavector.
vector.ItIthas
hasaalength
lengthand
andaadirection
directionthat
thatare
are
independent
independentof ofthe
theparticular
particularchoice
choiceof
ofaaCartesian
Cartesiancoordinate
coordinate
system
systemin inspace.
space.

SUMMARY
SUMMARYOF CHAPTER 9
OF CHAPTER 9
Vector
Vector Differential
Differential Calculus.
Calculus.
Grad,
Grad, Div,
Div, Curl
Curl
Section 9.Summary p153 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 9
Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl
All
Allvectors
vectorsof
ofthe
theform
formaa==[a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]==aa1i1i++aa2j2j++aa3k
3k
constitute
constitute the real vector space R3with
the real vector space R 3
withcomponentwise
componentwise
vector
vectoraddition
addition
(1)
(1) [a[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]++[b[b1,1,bb2,2,bb3]3]==[a[a1 1++bb1,1,aa2 2++bb2,2,aa3 3++bb3]3]
and
andcomponentwise
componentwisescalar scalarmultiplication
multiplication(c(caascalar, scalar,aareal
real
number)
number)
(2)
(2) c[a
c[a1,1,aa2,2,aa3]3]==[ca
[ca1,1,ca
ca2,2,ca
ca3]3] (Sec.
(Sec.9.1).
9.1).
For
Forinstance,
instance,the
theresultant
resultantof offorces
forcesaaand andbbisisthe
thesum
sumaa++b. b.
The
Theinner
innerproduct
productor ordotdotproduct
productof oftwo
twovectors
vectorsisis
defined
definedby
aby b  a b cos   a1b1  a2 b2  a3 b3
(3)
(3) (Sec.
(Sec.9.2)
9.2)
where
where γγisisthe
the angle
anglebetween
between aaand
and b.b.Mathematics, 10/e
Section 9.Summary p154 Advanced Engineering by Edwin Kreyszig
(continued 1) Vector Differential Calculus. Grad, Div, Curl
This
Thisgives
givesforforthe
thenorm
normor orlength
length|a| |a|of
ofaa
(4)
(4) a  a  a  a1
2
 a 2
2
 a3
2
as
aswell
wellas
asaaformula
formulafor γ.IfIfaa••bb==0,0,we
forγ. wecall
callaaand
andbb
orthogonal.
orthogonal.The Thedot
dotproduct
productisissuggested
suggestedby bythe
thework
work
WW==pp••dddone
doneby byaaforce
forceppin inaadisplacement
displacementd. d.
The
Thevector
vectorproduct
productor
orcross
crossproduct
productvv==aa××bbisisaavector
vectorof
of
length
length
(5)
(5) |a
|a××b|
b|==|a||b|sin
|a||b|sinγγ (Sec.
(Sec.9.3)
9.3)
and
andperpendicular
bothaaand
andbbsuch
suchthat
thata,a,b,
b,vvform
formaa
right-handed
right-handedtriple.
triple.

In
Interms
termsof
ofcomponents
componentswith
withrespect
respectto
toright-handed
right-handed
coordinates,
coordinates,
i j k
(6) a  b  a1 a2 a3 (Sec.
(6) (Sec.9.3).
9.3).
b1 b2 b3
The
Thevector
vectorproduct
productisissuggested,
suggested,for
forinstance,
instance,by
bymoments
moments
of
offorces
forcesor
orby
byrotations.
rotations.
CAUTION!
CAUTION!
This
Thismultiplication
multiplicationisisanticommutative,
anticommutative,aa××bb==−b
−b××a,a,and
andisis
not
notassociative.
associative.

An
An(oblique)
(oblique)box
boxwith
withedges
edgesa,a,b,
b,cchas
hasvolume
volumeequal
equalto
tothe
the
absolute
absolutevalue
valueof
ofthe
thescalar
scalartriple
tripleproduct
product
(7)
(7) (a bb c)c)==aa••(b
(a b)••c.c.
(b××c)c)==(a(a××b)
Sections
Sections9.4–9.9
9.4–9.9extend
extenddifferential
differentialcalculus
calculusto tovector
vector
functions
functions
v(t )   v1 (t ), v2 (t ), v3 (t )   v1 (t )i  v2 (t ) j  v3 (t )k
and
andto
tovector
vectorfunctions
functionsof
ofmore
morethan thanone
onevariable
variable(see
(see
below).
below).The
Thederivative
derivativeof
ofv(t)
v(t)isis
dv v(tt  )  v(t )
(8)v(t )  dtt  lim
(8)
t 0 
  v1 , v2 , v3   v1 i  v2 j  v3 k.

Differentiation
Differentiationrulesrulesare
areasasin
incalculus.
calculus.They
Theyimply
imply(Sec.
(Sec.9.4)
9.4)
( u  v )  u  v  u  v, ( u  v )  u  v  u  v.
Curves
CurvesCCin inspace
spacerepresented
representedby bythe
theposition
positionvectorvectorr(t) r(t)
have
haver′(t)
r′(t)as
asaatangent
tangentvectorvector(the(thevelocity
velocityin inmechanics
mechanics
when
whenttisistime),
time),r′r′(s)
(s)(s(sarc
arclength,
length,Sec. Sec.9.5)9.5)asasthe
theunit
unittangent
tangent
vector,
vector,and
and|r″|r″(s)|
(s)|==κκas asthe
thecurvature
curvature(the (theacceleration
accelerationin in
mechanics).
mechanics).
Vector
Vectorfunctions
functionsv(x, v(x,y,y,z)z)==[v[v1(x,
(x,y,y,z),
z),vv2(x,
(x,y,y,z),
z),vv3(x,
(x,y,y,z)]
z)]
1 2 3
represent
representvector
vectorfields
fieldsin inspace.
space.

Partial
Partialderivatives
derivativeswith
withrespect
respectto
tothe
theCartesian
coordinates
x,x,y,y,zzare
areobtained
obtainedcomponentwise,
componentwise,forforinstance,
instance,
v  v1 v2 v3  v1 v2 v3
 , ,   i j k (Sec.
x  x x x  x x x (Sec.9.6).
9.6).
The
Thegradient
gradientof
ofaascalar
scalarfunction
functionisis
 ff  f 
(9) grad ff     , ,  (Sec.
(9)  x y z  (Sec.9.7).
9.7).
The
Thedirectional
directionalderivative
derivativeof
off fin
inthe
thedirection
directionof
ofaavector
vectoraaisis
df 1
(10) Da ff   a   . (Sec. 9.7).
(10) ds a (Sec. 9.7).

The
Thedivergence
divergenceof
ofaavector
vectorfunction
functionvvisis
v1 v2 v3
(11)
(11) div v    v    (Sec.
(Sec.9.8).
9.8).
x y z
The
Thecurl
curlof
ofvvisis
i j k
  
(12) curl v    v  (Sec.
(12) x y z (Sec.9.9)
9.9)
v1 v2 v3
or
orminus
minusthe
thedeterminant
determinantififthe
thecoordinates
coordinatesare
areleft-handed.
left-handed.

Some
Somebasic
basicformulas
formulasfor forgrad,
grad,div,
div,curl
curlare
are(Secs.
(Secs.9.7–9.9)
9.7–9.9)
( fg)  f g  gf
(13)
(13) ( f / g )  (1 / g 2 )( gff  g )
div( ffv )  div v  v  f

(14)
(14) div( f g)  f  2 g  f  g
 2 ff  div( )
(15)
(15)  2 ( fg)  g 2 ff  2  g  f  2 g

curl ( ffv )    v  f curl v

(16)
(16) div ( u  v )  v  curl u  u  curl v
curl (f )  0
(17)
(17) div (curl v )  0.
For grad, div, curl, and  2 in curvilinear coordinates
see App. A3.4.


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PART

Part B p1 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Chapter 9 p2 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p3 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p4 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 164. Force and velocity

Section 9.1 p6 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 165. Translation

Section 9.1 p7 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 166. (A) Equal vectors. (B)–(D) Different vectors

Section 9.1 p8 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Components of a Vector (continued)

(See next slide for Figures 167, 168 and 169.)

Components of a Vector (continued)

Section 9.1 p11 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p12 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

Fig. 171. Resultant of two forces (parallelogram law)

Section 9.1 p14 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p16 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p17 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p18 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.1 p19 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 176. Difference of vectors

Section 9.1 p21 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 177. The unit vectors i, j, k and the representation (8)

Section 9.2 p23 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p24 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p25 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 178. Angle between vectors and value of inner product

Section 9.2 p26 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p27 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p28 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p29 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p30 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p31 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.2 p32 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Applications of Inner Products

Section 9.2 p33 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

(continued) If α < 90°, as in Fig. 179, then W > 0. If p and d are

Fig. 179. Work done by a force

Section 9.2 p34 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 180. Example 3

Section 9.2 p36 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 181. Component of a vector a in the direction of a vector b

Section 9.2 p39 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 182. Projections p of a on b and q of b on a

Section 9.2 p40 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

EXAMPLE 4 Orthonormal Basis

Section 9.3 p42 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.3 p44 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Section 9.3 p45 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 188. The two types of Cartesian coordinate systems

Section 9.3 p51 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 189. Anticommutativity of cross multiplication

EXAMPLE 3 Moment of a Force

Section 9.3 p54 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

EXAMPLE 3 (continued) Moment of a Force

Fig. 190. Moment of a force p

EXAMPLE 5 Velocity of a Rotating Body

Section 9.3 p57 Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10/e by Edwin Kreyszig

Fig. 192. Rotation of a rigid body