Oceanography

Oceanography (compound of the Greek words ὠκεανός

meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning "write"), also known as
oceanology, is the study of the physical and the biological
aspects of the ocean. Or a science that deals with the oceans
and includes the delimitation of their extent and depth, the
physics and chemistry of their waters, marine biology, and the
exploitation of their resources.
Why is Oceanography importa
nt?
• Economic Importance - resources, fish oil and gas, f
uture medical compounds.
• Environmental Reasons - Oceans lay major role in c
ontolling climate.
• 71% of Earth's surface is covered by ocean.
• Another increasingly important aspect of chemical
oceanography research concerns the study of the r
ole of oceans in the global carbon cycle. The oceans
are a major source and reservoir of carbon dioxide.
Difference between Ocean an
d Sea.
• An ocean is a large expanse of salt water that cover
s three-quarters of the earth’s surface. It is bounde
d by the continents, or the equator, and other imagi
nary lines. While, Seas are smaller than oceans and
are usually located where the land and ocean meet.
Typically, seas are partially enclosed by land.
History :
Humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the s
eas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were rec
orded by Aristotle and Strabo. Early exploration of the oceans was p
rimarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the
animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings
by lead line were taken.

• Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Strea
m, and the current was well-known to mariners, Benjamin Franklin
made the first scientific study of it and gave it its name. Franklin m
easured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and
correctly explained the Gulf Stream's cause. Franklin and Timothy
Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770.[1][2]
1799 map of the
• Information on the currents of the P
currents in the acific Ocean was gathered by explor
Atlantic and In ers of the late 18th century, includin
dian Oceans g James Cook and Louis Antoine de
Bougainville. James Rennell wrote th
e first scientific textbooks on oceano
graphy, detailing the current flows o
f the Atlantic and Indian oceans. Dur
ing a voyage around the Cape of Go
od Hope in 1777, he mapped "the b
anks and currents at the Lagullas". H
e was also the first to understand th
e nature of the intermittent current
near the Isles of Scilly, (now known
as Rennell's Current).[3]
Modern Oceanography
• Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans re
mained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the
water and a small amount of the bottom, mainly in
shallow areas. Almost nothing was known of the oc
ean depths. The Royal Navy's efforts to chart all of t
he world's coastlines in the mid-19th century reinfo
rced the vague idea that most of the ocean was ver
y deep, although little more was known. As explora
tion ignited both popular and scientific interest in t
he polar regions and Africa, so too did the mysterie
s of the unexplored oceans.
• In 1881 the geographer John Francon Williams publis
hed a seminal book, Geography of the Oceans.[9][10]
Between 1907 and 1911 Otto Krümmel published the
Handbuch der Ozeanographie, which became influen
tial in awakening public interest in oceanography.[11]
The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition head
ed by John Murray and Johan Hjort was the most am
bitious research oceanographic and marine zoologica
l project ever mounted until then, and led to the clas
sic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean.
• In recent years studies advanced particular knowled
ge on ocean acidification, ocean heat content, ocea
n currents, the El Niño phenomenon, mapping of m
ethane hydrate deposits, the carbon cycle, coastal e
rosion, weathering and climate feedbacks in regard
s to climate change interactions.
• Study of the oceans is linked to understanding glob
al climate changes, potential global warming and re
lated biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and oce
an are linked because of evaporation and precipitati
on as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wi
nd stress is a major driver of ocean currents while t
he ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. A
ll these factors relate to the ocean's biogeochemica
l setup.
Ocean Acidification :
• Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean
pH that is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions into the atmosphere.[13] Seawater
is slightly alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of abo
ut 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have
steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the
atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO2 is ab
sorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lo
wering the pH (now below 8.1[14]) through ocean a
cidification.[15][16][17] The pH is expected to reach
7.7 by the year 2100.[18]
Ocean Heat Content :
• Oceanic heat content (OHC) refers to the heat store
d in the ocean. The changes in the ocean heat play
an important role in sea level rise, because of ther
mal expansion. Ocean warming accounts for 90% of
the energy accumulation from global warming betw
een 1971 and 2010.[25]
Ocean Currents :
• Since the early ocean expeditions in oceanography,
a major interest was the study of the ocean current
s and temperature measurements. The tides, the C
oriolis effect, changes in direction and strength of w
ind, salinity and temperature are the main factors d
etermining ocean currents. The thermohaline circul
ation (THC) thermo- referring to temperature and -
haline referring to salt content connects 4 of 5 ocea
n basins and is primarily dependent on the density
of sea water. Ocean currents such as the Gulf Strea
m are wind-driven surface currents.
Oceanographic Institutions
:
• The first international organization of oceanography was crea
ted in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea. In 1903 the Scripps Institution of Oceanography was
founded, followed by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
in 1930, Virginia Institute of Marine Science in 1938, and late
r the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia Univers
ity, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washing
ton. In Britain, the National Oceanography Centre (an institut
e of the Natural Environment Research Council) is the succes
sor to the UK's Institute of Oceanographic Sciences. In Austra
lia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research (CMAR), is a lea
ding centre. In 1921 the International Hydrographic Bureau (I
HB) was formed in Monaco.