Periodic Motion

Oscillations are everywhere!

 pendulum
 sitar and guitar strings
 boats bobbing at anchor
 quartz crystal in a watch
 masses on springs motion that
repeats itself
k
m

k
m
 What describes oscillations ?

k
m

k
m

 period T = time for completing one cycle

 frequency f = 1 / T
 amplitude A = maximum displacement
from equilibrium position
 Suppose a force is always directed towards a
central equilibrium position
restoring
force
 force always acts to return the
object to its equilibrium position
Frestore

 the object will oscillate equilibrium

around the equilibrium position
position
 This “back-and-forth” motion
around an equilibrium position
is called: periodic motion
restoring
force

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

Frestore

equilibrium
position
 For there to be periodic motion, there must be:
 an equilibrium position
 a restoring force
 energy transformation (kinetic  potential)

 The restoring force depends

on the displacement x Frestore

Frestore   k x equilibrium
position
“back” towards
equilibrium point
 The simple harmonic oscillator

Stretched

F ( x)   kx
where k is the force
constant and measures
stiffness of the spring Relaxed

1 2
U ( x)  kx
2 Compressed

(stored energy)
 F ( x)  kx
ma  F  Stretched

d x 2 m
m 2  kx
dt
Relaxed
2
d x k m
2
 x  0
dt m
Compressed
This is called equation
of motion of the simple
m
harmonic oscillator
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Let us solve the equation of motion of the
simple harmonic oscillator

d 2x k
2
 x0 m
dt m
2
d x
2
  x
2

dt
k
 2

m
 d
How to calculate cos t ?
dt
x  t   cos t
x  t  t   cos   t  t 
x  t  t   x (t )  cos   t  t   cos t
  sin t sin(t  t / 2)
 t sin t
d
 cos t   sin t
dt
Why is sin    for small  ?
h
sin  
p p
h  0

p

h h  p
h
sin    
p
Remember two important results:
d
 sin t    cos t
dt
d
 cos t    sin t
dt
What happens if you differentiate twice?
2
d d
• dt 2 
sin t    cos t
dt
   sin t
2

•
2
d d
2 
cos t    sin t
dt dt
   cos t
2
 Any function of the form:
x  a cos t  b sin t
2
d x
is a solution of 2   x
2

dt

But what do  , a, b represent ?

 Physical significance of constant 

 2 
x  xm cos   t  
  
 xm cos  t  2 
 xm cos t

That is, the function merely repeats itself

after a time 2 / 
So 2 /  is the period of the motion T

2 m
T  2
 k
The frequency  of the oscillator is the
number of complete vibrations per
unit time:
1 1 k
 
T 2 m
Hence,

2 k
  2  
T m
 is called the angular frequency

dim     T 1

Unit of  is radian/second
x(t )  a cos t  b sin t
x(0)=a
d
x(t )   a sin t  b cos t
dt
 b (at t=0)

The solution can also be written as:

x(t )  xm cos  t   
Physical significance of constant xm

x  xm cos(t   )

  xm  x   xm

xm is called the amplitude of the motion

The frequency of the simple harmonic motion

is independent of the amplitude of the motion
 Phase x  xm sin(t   )
The quantity   t   is called the
phase of the motion. The constant 
is called the phase constant.

xm  0
t


2 t
  t
 x  xm cos t
t
dx
v   xm sin t
dt
t
dv
a   xm cos t
2

dt
t
Energy of simple harmonic motion

x  xm cos t
1 2 1 2
U  kx  kxm cos t
2

2 2
1 2 1
K  mv  m xm sin t
2 2 2

2 2
1 2
 kxm sin t
2

2
E  K U
1 2 1 2
 kxm cos t  kxm sin t
2 2

2 2
1 2
2

 kxm cos t  sin t
2 2

1 2
 kxm
2
E
K
U
t
 1 2 1 2 1 2
E  mv  kx  kxm
2 2 2

dx k 2
v
dt

m

xm  x 2


speed is maximum at x=0

speed is zero at x   xm
k1 v k2
m
d
T  t1  t2  t3
t1  period of oscillation of spring k1
t2  period of oscillation of spring k2
t3  time to cover the distance d
m m 2d
T  2  2 
k1 k2 v
k1 v k2
m
d
 Vertical oscillations

l
m y
m
mg
kl  mg k 
l
 k

m
mg / l

m
g

l

y  ym cos(t   )
k1 k2 x
m
k1 k2
m
 Springs coupled in series
k1 k2 y
m
k1 k2
m
y  y1  y2 F   k1 y1   k2 y2
F F
y1   y2  
k1 k2
 1 1  k1  k2 
y  F     F  
 k1 k2   k1k2 
 k1k2   k1k2 
F   y keff  
 k1  k2   k1  k2 

1 1 1 m
  T  2
keff k1 k2 keff
 Springs in parallel

Let x  displacement of the mass

k1
F1  k1 x
m
F2  k2 x
k2
F  F1  F2    k1  k2  x

keff  k1  k2 k1  k2

m
k k 2k
2
k
k 3
k m
m
m
k1 k2
m
 Mass connected between two springs

x = displacement of body
F1   k1 x F2  k2 x
 F  F1  F2    k1  k2  x
This shows that effective force constant is
keff  k1  k2
k1 k2
m
 l1  2l2 k
If the whole spring
l
undergoes an extension k1 k2
x by a force F , then
F  kx l1 l2
The extension suffered by the parts l1 and l1
l1 l2
by the same force are x and x
l l
respectively. Therefore
  l1   l2 
F  k1  x   k2  x   kx
l  l 
l l
k1l1  k2l2  kl  k1  k and k2  k
l1 l2
3
l  l1  l2  2l2  l2  3l2  l1  
2
l 3 l
 and  3
l1 2 l2
3
 k1  k   and k2  3k
2
Torsional oscillator

  
Here  is a constant that
depends on the properties
of wire and is called the
torsional constant.

d 2
d
2 
  I  I 2    I 2
dt dt
 d
2
 
2
   
dt I

Solution:    m cos t
   m cos t is the
maximum angular 
displacement.


I
Simple harmonic motion and uniform
circular motion
Acceleration of the particle is y
2
r v v
a   rˆ   R rˆ
2
Q
R R
acceleration along 
x direction is:
O P x
ax   R cos 
2
 y
v
Q
R
but 
O P x
x  R cos 
2
d x
 ax  2   x
2

dt
Thus point P executes simple harmonic motion
 y
Acceleration of the v
point Q is: Q
R
a y   R sin 
2

O P x
but
y  R sin 
2
d y
 a y  2   y
2

dt
Q also executes simple harmonic motion
 Composition of two simple harmonic motion
of the same period along the same line

x1  A1 sin t and x2  A2 sin  t   

The resultant displacement
x  x1  x2
 A1 sin t  A2 sin  t   
 A1 sin t  A2 sin t cos   A2 sin  cos t
 sin t  A1  A2 cos    cos t  A2 sin  
 Let A1  A2 cos   R cos 
and A2 sin   R sin 
We get x  R sin  t   
Thus the resultant motion is also simple harmonic
motion along the same line and has the same time
period. Its amplitude is

R  A  A  A1 A2 cos 
1
2 2
2

A2 sin 
tan  
A1  A2 cos 
Special cases:

If   0 then

 A1  A2 
2
R  A  A  A1 A2 
1
2 2
2  A1  A2
and
tan   0    0

We get x   A1  A2  sin t
This is constructive interference
 A
t
A
t
R  2A

t
If    then

 A1  A2 
2
R  A  A  A1 A2 
1
2 2
2  A1  A2
and
tan   0    0
We get x   A1  A2  sin t

This is destructive interference

A
t

A
t

R0 t
 1

0.5
sin t
2 4 6 8

-0.5

-1

0.5 sin 2t
2 4 6 8

-0.5

-1

0.5 sin 3t
2 4 6 8

-0.5

-1
 sin t  0.5sin 2t  0.3sin 3t
1

0.5

2 4 6 8
-0.5

-1

sin t  0.3sin 2t  0.5sin 3t

1

0.5

2 4 6 8
-0.5

-1
 1

0.5 cos t
2 4 6 8

-0.5

-1

0.5 cos 2t
2 4 6 8

-0.5

-1

cos 3t
1

0.5

2 4 6 8

-0.5

-1
 cos t  0.5cos 2t  0.3cos 3t
1.5

0.5

2 4 6 8

-0.5

cos t  0.3cos 2t  0.5cos 3t

1.5

0.5

2 4 6 8
-0.5

-1
 Composition of two simple harmonic motions
Of the same period at right angles to each other

x  A sin t and y  B sin  t   

x
sin t   and cos t  1  x / A 2 2

A
y
 sin t cos   sin  cos t
B
x
 cos   sin  1  x / A2 2

A
 squaring and rearranging

2 2
x y xy
2
 2 2 cos   sin 
2

A B AB
This is the equation of an ellipse.
Special cases:

If   0 then
2 2 2
x y xy x y
2
 2 2 0   0
A B AB  A B
x y B
  0 or y    x
A B  A

This is the equation of a straight line. Thus the

resultant motion is a S.H.M. along a straight line
passing through the origin.
y

x
If    we get
x y B
  0 or y     x
A B  A
y

x
  For A  B y
If   then
2
2 2
x y
2
 2 1 x
A B

which is an ellipse
y
If A  B then x  y  A
2 2 2

x
which is an circle
 Lissajous Figures

x  A sin  x t and y  B sin   y t   

If two oscillations of different frequencies at

right angles are combined, the resulting motion is
more complicated. It is not even periodic unless
the two frequencies are in the ratio of integers.
This resulting curve are called Lissagous Figures.

x
 integers  periodic motion
y
 Damped harmonic motion
dx
Damping force  b where b  0
dt
From Newton’s second law
r b
r k m
 F  ma
2
dx d x
kx  b m 2
dt dt
2
d x dx
 m 2  b  kx  0
dt dt
 2
k  b 
Its solution for   is
m  2m 

x  xm e  bt / 2 m
cos   ' t   
2
k  b 
where '  
m  2m 
b
k m
Forced oscillation and resonance
2
d x
m 2  k x  F0 cos t
dt
F0
Solution: x  cos  t

m 0  
2 2

Check:

mF ( )  kF
2
LHS  cos t  RHS

m 0  
2 2

Here 0 is the natural frequency of the
k
system and is given by 0 
m

There is a characteristic value of the driving

frequency  at which the amplitude of
oscillation is a maximum. This condition is
called resonance. For negligible damping
resonance occurs at   0