Surface tension

Leaves and insect can be observed to float

on the surface of a body of water.

They are not partially submerged

and thus not buoyed up because
of Archimedes’ principle.

In this case the object is completely on the

surface and none of it is submerged
Archimedes’ principle does not allow some
things to float but they still float !
r r
Fs Fs

r
mg
 r r
Fs Fs
A liquid has the property
that its free surface
tends to contract to
minimum possible area
and is therefore in a r
state of tension. mg
 Explanation
The molecules of the liquid exerts attractive forces
on each other, which is called cohesive forces

Deep inside a liquid,

a molecule is surrounded
by other molecules in all
direction. Therefore there
is no net force on it.

At the surface, a molecule is surrounded by only

half as many molecules of the liquid, because
there are no molecules above the surface
Thus liquid tends to minimize its surface area
just as does a stretched membrane

Freely falling raindrops are

spherical because a
sphere has a smaller
surface area for a given
volume than any other
shape

Surface-active agents or surfactant reduces the

surface tension by reducing the cohesive forces
between molecules
The force of contraction at right angles to an
imaginary line of unit length, tangential to the
surface of a liquid, is called its surface tension.

F

L

The SI units of the surface tension is N/m

Quantitative measurement
of surface tension
w  weight of the sliding wire

T  pull force Soap film 2 L

T  w  F  net downward force

L w
T
Since film has both front and back surfaces
so the force F acts along a total length of 2 L
 The surface tension in the film is defined as

F
  F  2 L
2L

In equilibrium
Soap film 2 L
F  2 L  w  T
L w
T
wT
 
2L
 Surface tension in terms of energy

If we move the sliding wire

through a displacement x
F
Work done by the force of
surface tension  F x x
L
F is a conservative force
 there is potential energy
 U  F x   Lx
where L is the length of the surface layer

Lx  A  change in area of the surface that

occurs when we stretch it
Therefore
U
F
A
Surface tension is the surface potential energy
per unit area !
 Liquid in contact with a solid surface

Cohesive forces

Forces of attraction between the molecules of liquid

Adhesive forces

Forces of attraction between the molecules of

liquid and solid
If adhesive forces are stronger than
the cohesive forces, the liquid
molecules are pulled towards the
solid surface and liquid surface
becomes curved inward

On the other hand if cohesive

forces are stronger the surface
becomes curved outwards
This explains why the meniscus of a liquid in a
tube is either concave upwards or convex upwards.

This also explains why certain liquid spread when

placed on the solid surface And wet it (e.g., water
on glass) while others do not spread but form
globules (e.g., mercury on glass)

water mercury
 Angle of contact
The angle between the tangent planes to the
liquid and the solid surfaces, measured through
the liquid, is called the angle of contact ( )
If   900 liquid wets the solid
If   900 liquid does not wet the solid



 Pressure inside a bubble
liquid between surfaces

Surface tension causes a R

pressure difference between
the inside and outside of a
soap bubble or a liquid drop
air fills interior
A soap bubble consists of two spherical surface
films with a thin layer of liquid between
 p  pressure exerted by the p
upper half
surface tension
force
p0  external pressure
Surface tension force acts
on the circumference of the
bubble

 force exerted due to

surface tension  2(2 r )
p0
Q bubble has two surfaces
At equilibrium

 r p  2(2 r )   r p0
2 2

Therefore
4
Excess pressure  p  p0  (soap bubble)
r

A liquid drop has only one surface film

2
Excess pressure  p  p0  (liquid drop)
r
The rise and fall of a liquid in a capillary tube
dipped in the liquid is called capilliarity

Surface tension causes the capillarity

If angle of contact is less than 900, liquid rises

in the tube and if the angle of contact is greater
than 900, the liquid is depressed
 4 r
Excess pressure  p  p0 
R R

but p  p0   gh
 h
and r  R cos 
Therefore
4 cos 
h
r g

Thus narrower the tube, the greater the rise

 Fluid flow can be steady or non-steady:

For steady flow, pressure density and velocity

are constant in time, e.g., a gently flowing stream

Example of non-steady flow is water fall

Fluid flow can be compressible or
incompressible

If the density  of a fluid is a constant,

independent of x, y ,z and t its flow is
called incompressible flow

Liquid can usually be considered as

flowing incompressibly, but gases are
considered to be incompressible.
Fluid flow can be viscous or non-viscous

Viscosity in fluid motion is the analogue of

friction in the motion of solid

When a fluid flows such that no energy is

dissipated through viscous forces, the flow is
said to nonviscous.
 Two main types of fluid flow:
1) laminar

Fluid “particles” follow fixed paths

(streamlines)
Streamlines do not cross or meet

Velocity is tangent to streamlines

2) turbulent
 Equation of continuity

Consider water flowing in a pipe with a changing

diameter:
L1  v1t
L2  v 2t
1 2

Volume of water flowing Volume of water flowing

past here per second = past here per second

V1 / t  V2 / t  V1  V2
 Why are volumes equal?
• water is incompressible
• no leaks or ruptures

V1  A1 L1  A1v1t V2  A2 L2  A2 v 2t

V1 / t  V2 / t  A1v1  A2 v 2

smaller area  greater speed

dV
 Av  constant Continuity Equation
dt
 Human circulatory system

 Large arteries

 slow blood flow

 Small arteries

 fast blood flow

 Bernoulli’s Equation
Work done due to p1  p1 A1l1 l2  v 2t

Work done due to p2   p2 A2 l2

Work done A2
l1  v1t
by gravity y2
is associated y1 A1
with lifting the
fluid element from y1 to y2  mg  y2  y1 
The net work done on the system is

W  p1 A1l1  p2 A2 l2  mg  y2  y1 

Now A1l1  A2 l2  V  m / 

W   p1  p2   m /    mg  y2  y1 

The change in kinetic energy of the fluid element is

1 1
K  mv 2  mv1
2 2

2 2
From energy conservation,

W  K

1 1
 p1  p2   m /    mg  y2  y1   mv 2  mv1
2 2

2 2
1 2 1 2
p1   v1   gy2  p2   v 2   gy1
2 2
1 2
p   v   gy  constant
2
This is called Bernoulli’s equation for steady
incompressible, non-viscous and irrotational flow.
 Example
Constant height --- change in pipe area

v1
y1  y2 v2

(narrower faster flow)

1 2 1 2
p1   v1   gy1  p2   v 2   gy2
2 2
1 2 1 2
p1   v1  p2   v 2
2 2
  A1 
A1v1  A2 v 2  v 2    v1
 A2 
v1
Q A1  A2  v 2 is larger v2

1
2
2

 p2  p1   v 2  v1
2


p2 < p 1 (faster flow lower pressure)

 Example
Uniform pipe --- change in height
v2
v1
A1 = A2 v1 = v 2
h

1 2 1 2
p1   v1   gy1  p2   v 2   gy2
2 2
 p2  p1   g  y2  y1   p1   gh

p2 < p 1 (higher lower pressure)

 Airplanes

An airplane wing (airfoil) is shaped so that the

air above the wing travels faster than the air
below:
Lift So the air over
Force the top of the
Ptop < Pbottom vt wing is at a lower
pressure. This
upward force is
vb called “lift”
Pbottom
 Atomizer
Fast-moving stream of air makes pressure very
low at the top of the vertical tube
 fluid is pushed up the tube
 when fluid hits air stream, mist sprays out

Low pressure force

High pressure
 The Venturi meter

It is a device to A v v
a
measure the flow 
velocity of a liquid
h
through a pipe.


Bernoulli’s equation gives

1 2 1
p   v  p    v 2
2 2
Equation of continuity

Av  av
Also
p  p  h       g

Solving these equations, we get

2       gh
va
 A a
2 2

 The Pitot tube

Bernoulli’s equation gives

1 2
p2   v 2  p1
2 h

p1  p2  gh  

2 gh  
v2 

 Fluid flow can be rotational or irrotational

If an element of the moving fluid does not rotate

about an axis passing through the center of mass
of element, the flow is said to be irrotational

If the wheel moves without rotating

the motion is irrotational; otherwise
it is rotational
Dynamic lift
 Summary of Fluid Motion

 Continuity Equation: A v = constant

wide (BIG area) low speed
narrow (small area) high speed

P  1 v 2 gy  constant
2
 Bernoulli’s Principle:
high speed (fast) low pressure
low speed (slow) high pressure