The Digestive System

Functions of the Digestive System

 Ingest food

 Break down food into nutrient molecules

 Absorb molecules into the bloodstream

 Rid the body of indigestible remains

 Main Divisions of the Digestive
System
 Alimentary Canal
 Continuous, muscular digestive tube winding
throughout the body
 Digests and absorbs food particles
 Contains the following organs:
 Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small and Large
Intestines
 Accessory Digestive Organs
 Contains the following organs:
 Teeth, Tongue, Gallbladder, Salivary Glands, Liver, and
Pancreas
Digestive System Divisions
 Digestive Processes
 Ingestion
 Propulsion
 Mechanical digestion
 Chemical digestion
 Absorption
 Defecation
 Circulation of the Alimentary
Canal/GI Tract
 Splanchnic Circulation
 Includes all arteries branching off the
abdominal aorta and the hepatic portal
circulation
 Arterial supply:
 Celiac Trunk (hepatic, splenic, and left gastric)
 Mesenteric Arteries: sup. and inf.

 Receives ¼ of the blood volume (CO);

increases after a meal
 Histology of the Alimentary
Canal/GI Tract
 From esophagus to anus, the walls of the
alimentary canal have the same 4 layers:
 Mucosa (secretes hormones and mucus, absorbs end
products of digestion, and protects against infection
 Submucosa (contains lymphoid follicles and elastic
tissue)
 Muscularis externa (segmentation and peristalsis,
contains inner circular layer and outer longitudinal
layer, area where valves are found)
 Serosa (same as visceral peritoneum, made of areolar
connective tissue)
Histology of the GI Tract
Peritoneum
Peritoneum is the serous membrane lining the
abdominopelvic cavity

Visceral peritoneum covers the external surfaces of

most digestive organs and is continuous with the parietal
peritoneum that lines the body wall

Between the two peritoneums is the peritoneal cavity

Mesentery is a double layer peritoneum; provides routes
for BV, lymphatics, nerves

Alimentary canal organs are classified as

Retroperitoneal - no mesentery and organs lies
posterior to the peritoneum (SADPUCKER)
Intraperitoneal - mesentery and organs lies within the
peritoneal cavity
 Features and Functions of the
Mouth
 Buccal/oral cavity
 Contains stratified squamous epithelium
 Vestibule: area bounded by lips and
cheeks externally and teeth and gums
internally
 Lips: posses no sweat or oil glands
 Palate: forms roof of the mouth, soft and
hard palate, uvula
Anatomy of the Mouth
 Features and Functions of the
Tongue
 Helps grind food into a bolus which
contains partially digested food and saliva
 Helps form words and is a sensory organ
for taste
 Three surface features:
 Filiform papillae (roughness and grip)
 Fungiform papillae (contains taste buds)
 Circumvallate papillae (contains taste buds)
Anatomy of the Tongue
 Features and Functions of the
Salivary Glands
 Main functions:
 Produces and secretes saliva
 Cleanses the mouth
 Dissolves food chemicals so they can be
tasted
 Moistens food, compacting it into a bolus
 Begins the chemical breakdown of food
 Salivary amylase: starch
 Types of Salivary Glands
 Submandibular Glands
 Found underneath the mandible
 Sublingual Glands
 Found underneath the tongue
 Parotid Glands
 Found anterior to the ear between masseter and skin
 Saliva travels to oral orifice via ducts from all
three glands
Anatomy of the Salivary Glands
 Composition of Saliva: 97-99.5% water
 pH 6.75-7.0
 Sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate,
and bicarbonate
 Mucin
 Salivary amylase
 Features and Functions of the
Teeth
 Break food into smaller parts, increasing
surface area for digestion
 Types of Teeth
 Deciduous Teeth (“baby” teeth)
 Permanent Teeth
 Incisors- cutting and shredding
 Canines- piercing and tearing

 Molars- grinding

 Premolars- grinding and crushing

 Tooth Structure
 Crown: exposed
portion of tooth
covered by enamel
which covers dentin
 Root: internal portion
that is beneath the
gums (gingiva) and is
anchored by
periodontal ligaments
 Deglutition and the Pharynx
 Deglutition = swallowing
 Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx are common
passageways for food and air
 Pharynx contains stratified squamous epithelium
(friction-resistant)
 Features and Functions of the
Esophagus
 Muscular tube that propels food to stomach;
bolus enters stomach through esophageal hiatus
 Skeletal muscle (upper third for swallowing) and
smooth muscle (lower third) for peristalsis
 Esophageal glands – produce mucus to lubricate
bolus
 Esophageal sphincter – prevents backflow into
oral cavity
 Cardiac sphincter- prevents backflow into
esophagus
Anatomy of the Esophagus
Microscopic Anatomy of the
Esophagus
 Digestive Processes in the Mouth,
Pharynx, and Esophagus
 Mouth processes:
 Ingestion
 Mechanical digestion (e.g. salivary amylase)
 Initiation of Propulsion
 Mastication: chewing
 Pharyngeal processes:
 Deglutition = swallowing
 Voluntary Buccal phase
 Involuntary Pharyngeal-Esophageal Phase
 Esophageal processes:
 Peristalsis (rhythmic contractions, involuntary)
Deglutition and the Pharynx
Peristalsis
 Features and Functions of the
Stomach
 Temporary storage area for food and allows it to
mix with gastric juice to produce chyme
 Regions: cardiac, fundus, body, and pyloric
 Greater and Lesser Curvatures: connected to
greater and lesser omentums
 Rugae folds: longitudinal folds in stomach wall
- mucous b/w folds
 Muscle layers arranged circularly, longitudinally,
AND obliquely (aids in digestion)
Anatomy of the Stomach
 Microscopic Anatomy of the
Stomach
 Simple columnar epithelium – contains gastric
pits that secrete gastric juices
 Goblet cells – secrete mucus that coats stomach
and prevents it from being digested itself
 Parietal cells – secrete hydrochloric acid
(converts pepsinogen into pepsin) and intrinsic
factor (necessary for absorption of vitamin B12)
 Chief cells – secrete pepsinogen which is
converted to pepsin to aid in protein digestion
 Enteroendocrine cells – release hormones such
as:
 Histamine, Serotonin, Gastrin, Endorphins, and
Somatostatin
 Histamine
- activates parietal cells to release HCl
 Serotonin
- contraction of stomach muscle
 Gastrin
- gastric glands to increase secretion
 Endorphins
- natural opiates
 Somatostatin
- sympathetic n.s.
- inhibits gastric secretion
- inhibits gastric emptying
Microscopic Anatomy of the
Digestive System
Digestive Processes in the Stomach
 Gastric Secretion
 Cephalic Phase
 Stimulated by the thought, sight, taste, or aroma or
food
 Inputs from olfactory receptors and taste buds travel
to parasympathetic enteric ganglia which then
stimulate stomach glands
 Gastric Phase
 Stomach distension activates stretch receptors
 Food chemicals (e.g. peptides, rising pH) activate
chemoreceptors which activate G cells which secrete
gastrin
 Intestinal Phase
 Presence of low pH and partially digested foods in
duodenum stimulates intestinal gastrin secretion
Digestive Processes in the Stomach
 Gastric Motility and Emptying

 Peristaltic waves approach stomach and become

stronger near pyloric region
 Pyloric sphincter allows ~ 3 mL of chyme to pass to
duodenum and the rest to return to stomach for further
mixing
 Features and Functions of the
Small Intestine
 Receives chyme from stomach; performs
majority of digestion and absorption of nutrients
 Regions:
 Duodenum (upper region receiving chyme from
stomach and digestive enzymes from pancreas and
bile from liver and gallbladder)
 Jejunum/Ileum (lower regions where absorption
occurs)
 Plicae circulares (permanent folds in mucosa and
submucosa that slow movement of chyme)
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
 Microscopic Anatomy of Small
Intestine
 Villi: fingerlike projections that increase the
surface area of the SI
 Microvilli: tiny projections on the plasma
membranes of columnar cells that appear fuzzy
(i.e. brush border cells)
 Crypts of Lieberkuhn: secrete intestinal juice
and special lysozymes that protect against
bacteria
 Peyer’s Patches: aggregated lymphoid tissues
containing lymphocytes
Microscopic Anatomy of the Small
Intestine
Secretions of the Small Intestine
 Secretin: released by enteroendocrine cells when acidic
chyme enters SI; causes release of bicarbonate-rich
pancreatic juices
 Somatostatin: slows gastric motility and emptying and
inhibits production of gastric secretions
 Cholecystokinin (CCK): released when fatty, protein-
rich chyme enters SI; causes release of enzyme-rich
pancreatic juices and bile
 Brush border enzymes: process long peptides, nucleic
acids, and sugars into smaller ones
After Digestion: Absorption

Protein Fats
 Functions of the Liver
 Largest internal organ
 Functions:
 Filters and processes nutrient-rich blood of
carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids from
intestine
 Production and regulation of cholesterol
 Production of bile which emulsifies fats
 Removes drugs and hormones from
circulation
 Storage of vitamins and minerals
 Anatomy of the Liver
 Right and Left Lobes: separated by falciform
ligament
 Caudate and Quadrate Lobes: found on
posterior side
 Blood vessels:
 Hepatic artery/vein and hepatic portal vein
 Gallbladder: found underneath left lobe, stores
bile
Gross Anatomy of the Liver
 Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver
 Liver Lobules: structural unit of liver
 Hepatocytes: liver cells contained within the lobules
 Hepatic portal vein & Hepatic Artery: the circulation
of the liver, they bring blood into the liver where it is
filtered through the liver sinusoidal capillaries
 Kupffer cells: remove debris
 Filtered blood drains into the central vein, then to the
hepatic vein, and eventually to the inferior vena cava
 Bile (produced by hepatocytes) drains into the bile
duct after passing through portal triad
 Bile then shipped to gallbladder for storage
Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver
Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver
Blood supply
- receives fresh O2 blood from hepatic
artery (off of aorta)
- receives deoxygenated blood with
nutrients (from small intestine)
- hepatic portal vein
- From liver- hepatic vein- inferior vena
cava
Hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery and
bile ducts make up the portal triad.
 Function and Regulation of Bile
 Bile ducts are present at every portal triad
 Bile flows down bile canaliculi (tiny canals)
between adjacent hepatocytes towards bile duct
branches at every portal triad
 Bile enters the bile ducts which drain into the
common hepatic duct
 Bile emulsifies fats, separating them into smaller
parts
 Bilirubin: the chief bile pigment, a waste product
of the heme of hemoglobin formed during the
breakdown of worn-out erythrocytes
 Regulation of Bile Production
 Bile exits cystic duct upon
stimulation
 CCK released when
acidic, fatty chyme enters
intestines
 Causes:
 Gallbladder Contraction
 Pancreatic Juice Secretion
 Relaxation of
hepatopancreatic sphincter
 Features and Functions of the
Pancreas
 Pancreatic Juice secreted by acinar cells
 Islets of Langerhans release insulin and
glucagon (important in glucose metabolism)
 Pancreatic Juice contains:
 Sodium Bicarbonate (buffers HCl in stomach)
 Proteases (break down polypeptides)
 Pancreatic amylase (digests oligosaccarides and
disaccharides into monosaccharides)
 Pancreatic lipases (break down lipids into fatty acids
and glycerol)
 Pancreatic nucleases (break down nucleic acids)
Anatomy of the Pancreas
Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
 Features and Functions of the
Large Intestine
 Functions:
 Reabsorption of remaining water and
electrolytes
 Production and absorption of Vitamins B and
K
 Elimination of feces
 Diameter is only 7 cm but is larger than
that of the small intestine
 Gross Anatomy of the Large
Intestine
 Teniae Coli: bands of smooth muscle that create
pocket-like sacs (haustra)
 Cecum: sac-like connection between the small and
large intestines
 Appendix: small structure containing lymphoid tissue;
small immune function
 Ascending, Descending, Transverse, and Sigmoid
Colon
 Splenic and hepatic flexure
 Rectum: storage area
 Anus: regulates defecation with two sphincter muscles;
internal and external
Anatomy of the Colon
 Microscopic Anatomy of the Large
Intestine
 Simple columnar epithelium for absorption
except in the anal canal where there is stratified
squamous
 No villi, no digestive-secreting cells
 Goblet cells produce mucus for lubrication of
feces
 Bacterial flora synthesize vitamin B and most of
the vitamin K needed for blood clotting
Microscopic Anatomy of the Large
Intestine
Summary of Digestion
Summary of Digestion
The Process of Absorption
 Clinical corner
 Peptic ulcers - gastric and duodenal, caused by
Helicobacter pylori, NSAIDS, Hcl hypersecretion
 Cirrohsis - scarred liver due to chronic
inflammation
 Hepatitis - A,B,C,D, and E
 Biliary calculi - gall stones - crystals of cholesterol in
bile
 Borborygmus - rumbling noise caused by gas
through intestines
 Cholecystitis - inflammation of gall bladder
 Colitis - inflammation of colon
 Dysphagia - difficulty in swallowing
 Enteritis - inflammation of the intestines
Flatuation/erucation