Chapter Four

Sampling Design

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 Population and Sample
 Population is a group of any kind (human or non-human)
to which the researchers intend to apply their study

 At the outset of the sampling process, it is vitally important to

carefully define the target population so the proper source from
which the data are to collected can be identified.

 Sample refers to any group drawn from a large population in a

research from which information or data is obtained.

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 Sampling
 Sampling is a process of using a small number of items or parts
of a larger population to make conclusions about the whole
population.

 It is a selection process researchers use to define their

population, select samples and gather data or information, which
the researchers later use to make conclusions and possible
generalization that would work for the population

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 The Need for Sampling
 It is possible to take all individual members of a population
as subjects when the population
 is homogeneous,
 found in the same geographical area, and
 is small in number.
 However, this is very difficult and infeasible in terms of
time and cost when the population is
 large
 diverse,
 scattered over large geographical areas.

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Processes of selecting samples
 1. Determining the population
 2. Determining the sampling frame
 A sampling frame is the list of elements from
which the sample may be drawn.
 3. Selecting a representative sample
 This is crucial to ensure valid conclusion or
generalizability, for a biased sample leads to to
inappropriate conclusions

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Probability Sampling design
 Probability sampling that relies on random processes
 It requires more work than nonrandom sampling.
 Random samples are most likely to yield a sample that truly
represents the population.
 In addition, random sampling lets a researcher statistically
calculate the relationship between the sample and the population
– that is the size of sampling error.
 A non-statistical definition of the sampling error is the deviation
between sample result and a population parameter due to random
process.

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Types of probability sampling design
 1. Simple random sampling
 2. Systematic Sampling
 3. Stratified Sampling
 4. Cluster Sampling
 5. Multi Stage Sampling

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Types of probability sampling design
 1. Simple random sampling
 A research develops an accurate sampling frame,
 selects elements from sampling frame according to mathematically random
procedure,
 then locates the exact element that was selected for inclusion in the
sample.

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Types of probability sampling design
 2. Systematic random sampling
 Systematic random sampling is simple random sampling with a short cut
for random selection.
 Again, the first step is to number each element in the sampling frame.
 Instead of using a list of random numbers, researcher calculates a
sampling interval, and the interval becomes his or her own quasi-random
selection method.
 The sampling interval tells the researcher how to select elements from a
sampling frame by skipping elements in the frame.

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Types of probability sampling design
 3. Stratified sampling
 When the population is heterogeneous, the use of simple random sample
may not produce representative sample.
 Some of the bigger strata may get over representation while some of the
small ones may entirely be eliminated.
 To form stratum, Look at the variables that are likely to affect the results,
and stratify the population in such a way that each stratum becomes
homogeneous group within itself.
 Then draw the required sample by using the table of random numbers.
 Hence in stratified random sampling a sub-sample is drawn utilizing
simple random sampling within each stratum.

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Types of probability sampling design
 4. Cluster random
 Purpose: to sample economically while retaining the characteristics
of a probability sample.
 A researcher draws several samples in stages in cluster sampling. In
a three-stage sample,
 Stage 1: random sampling of big clusters;
 Stage 2: random sampling of small clusters within each selected big
cluster; and
 Stage 3: finally sampling of group(s) of elements from within the
sampled small clusters.
 Addressing two problems:
 Researchers lack a good sampling frame for a dispersed population and
the cost to reach a sampled element is very high.
 A second advantage for geographically dispersed populations is that
elements within each cluster are physically closer to each other. This
may produce savings in locating or reaching each element.

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 Types of probability sampling design
 5. Multi-stage Sampling
 This is an extension or further development of the principle of
cluster sampling which requires the use of combination of
sampling techniques.
 It involves selecting the sample in stages, that is, taking
samples from samples.
 Using the large community example in cluster sampling,
 one type of stage sampling might be to select a number of schools
at random, and
 from within each of these schools, select a number of classes at
random,
 and from within those classes select a number of students.

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 Non-probability Sampling
 In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular
element of the population being chosen is unknown.
 The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite
arbitrary, as researchers rely heavily on personal judgment.
 It should be noted that there are no appropriate statistical
techniques for measuring random sampling error from a non-
probability sample.
 Thus projecting the data beyond the sample is statistically
inappropriate.
 Nevertheless, there are occasions when non-probability samples
are best suited for the researcher’s purpose.

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 Types of non-probability sampling
 1. Comprehensive Sampling
 Including all the elements of the population when its size is
manageable
 2. Quota sampling
 A sampling procedure that ensures that certain characteristics of a
population sample will be represented to the exact extent that the
researcher desires.
 In this case the researcher first identifies relevant categories of people
(e.g. male and female; or under age 30, ages 30 to 60, over 60, etc) then
decides how many to get in each category.
 Thus the number of people in various categories of sample is fixed.

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 Types of non-probability sampling
 3. Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or
accidental sampling)
 refers to sampling by obtaining units or people who are most
conveniently available.
 For example, it may be convenient and economical to sample
employees in companies in a nearby area, sample from a pool of
friends and neighbors.
 4. Maximum variation sampling
 A strategy by which units are selected for the sample
because they provide the greatest differences in certain
characteristics
 5. Extreme case sampling
 A technique which uses a selection of cases on both ends
of a continuum, individuals that are unusual or unique in a
certain way

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 Types of non-probability sampling
 6.Typical case sampling
 Selecting cases that are assumed to be typical of the characteristics
under study
 7. Purposive sampling
 Depending upon the type of topic, the researcher lays down the criteria
for the subjects to be included in the sample.
 Whoever meets that criterion could be selected in the sample.
 The researcher might use his/her judgment for the actual selection of the
subjects.
 8. Theoretical sampling
 This is a feature of grounded theory. In grounded theory the
sample size is relatively immaterial, as one works with the data
that one has.
 Theoretical sampling requires the researcher to have sufficient
data to be able to generate and ‘ground’ the theory in the research
context, however defined, i.e. to create a theoretical explanation
of what is happening in the situation, without having any data that
do not fit the theory.
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 Types of non-probability sampling
 9. Volunteer sampling
 In cases where access is difficult, the researcher may have
to rely on volunteers, for example, personal friends, or
friends of friends, or participants who reply to a newspaper
advertisement, or those who happen to be interested from
a particular school, or those attending courses.
 10. Snowball or Chain sampling
 Snowball sampling (also called network, chain referral, or
reputational sampling) is a method for identifying and
sampling (or selecting) cases in the network.
 This design has been found quite useful where
respondents are difficult to identify and are best located
through referral networks.
 It begins with one or a few people or cases and spreads
out on the basis of links to the initial cases.
 This group is then used to locate others who possess
similar characteristics and who, in turn, identify others.
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 Sample Size
 No clear-cut answer to the question how large the samples for the research
should be.
 Sample size is determined to some extent by the style of the research, and by
cost—in terms of time, money, stress, and resources.
 A survey style usually requires a large sample, particularly if inferential
statistics are to be calculated.
 In an ethnographic or qualitative style of research it is more likely that the
sample size will be small.
 Borg and Gall (1979:194–5) suggest that
 correlational research requires a sample size of no fewer than 30 cases,
 causal-comparative and experimental methodologies require a sample size of
no fewer than 15 cases, and
 survey research should have no fewer than 100 cases in each major subgroup
and twenty to fifty in each minor subgroup.

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