VOLATILE OILS

Teaching material for Integrated Analytical Chemistry_2009

OIL?????
 VOLATILE OILS
All official volatile oils are
of vegetable origin.
Normally pre-exist in the
plant – stored in a
special secretory tissue
(e.g. Citrus peel oil cells
or oil ducts in
umbelliferous fruits).
Uses in industry ??
 USES OF VOLATILE OILS
 Therapeutically (Oil of
Eucalyptus)
 Flavouring (Oil of Lemon)
 Perfumery (Oil of Rose)
 Starting materials to
synthesize other compounds
(Oil of Turpentine)
 Anti-septic – due to high
phenols (Oil of Thyme). Also
as a preservative (oils interfere
with bacterial respiration)
 Anti-spasmodic (Ginger,
Lemon balm, Rosemary,
Peppermint, Chamomile,
Fennel, Caraway)
 Aromatherapy
DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS
Volatile oils are products which are generally
complex in composition, consisting of the
volatile principles contained in plants,
and are more or less modified during the
preparation process.

Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare

official oils
i. Steam distillation
ii. Expression
 Fx OF VOLATILE OILS
In most cases, the biological
function of the terpenoids
of essential oils remains
obscure – it is thought
that they play an
ecological role –
protection from predators
& attraction of pollinators.
From your observation in laboratory,
how can you tell me the properties of
volatile oil?
 PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS
 Almost entirely volatile without
decomposition.
 Density: Most are less than 1g/ml.
 2 are heavier – Oil of Cinnamon and
Clove oil.
 Soluble in ether, chloroform &
alcohol.
 Slightly soluble in water: give it a
characteristic odour & taste.
 Leaves a temporary translucent
stain on paper which disappears
as the oil volatilizes.
 Most are colourless. Oxidize on
exposure to air and resinify 
colour becomes darker (odour
changes slightly).
 All are characteristic odours.
 Most are optically active.
 VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION
 Mixtures of HC’s and oxygenated
compounds derived from these HC’s.
 Oil of turpentine – mainly HC’s
 Oil of Clove – mainly oxygenated
compounds
 EXCEPTION: Oils derived from
glycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil &
mustard oil).

 Oxygenated compounds – responsible for

the odour/smell of the oil. They are slightly
water soluble – Rose water & Orange
Water; more alcohol soluble.

 Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some are

aromatic (benzene) derivatives mixed with
terpenes.

 Some compounds are aromatic, but

terpenoid in origin (e.g. Thymol – Thyme)
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes based
on their biosynthetic origin

i. Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetate

mevalonic acid pathway)

ii. Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimic

acid-phenylpropanoid route)

iii. Miscellaneous Origin

CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
All terpenes are formed
from 5-C elements

Isoprene is the basic

structural element.
 TERPENOIDS
Terpenoids contain only the
most volatile terpenes
(i.e. molecular weight is
not too high)  mono
and sesquiterpenes

May occur as oxygenated

derivatives, e.g. alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones,
phenols, oxides & esters.
 Classification of Terpenes

Class Number of carbon atoms

Monoterpene 10
Sesquiterpene 15
Diterpene 20
Sesterpene 25
Triterpene 30
Tetraterpene 40
 Terpenes
Terpenes are natural products that
are structurally related to isoprene.

CH3

H2C C CH CH2 or

Isoprene
(2-methyl-1,3-butadiene)
 The Isoprene Unit
An isoprene unit is the carbon skeleton of
isoprene (ignoring the double bonds)

Myrcene contains two isoprene units.

 The Isoprene Unit
The isoprene units of myrcene are joined
"head-to-tail."
head tail

tail head
 Figure 26.6
Representative Monoterpenes

OH O

-Phellandrene Menthol Citral

(eucalyptus) (peppermint) (lemon grass)
 Figure 26.6
Representative Monoterpenes

OH O

-Phellandrene Menthol Citral

(eucalyptus) (peppermint) (lemon grass)
 Figure 26.6
Representative Monoterpenes

-Phellandrene Menthol Citral

(eucalyptus) (peppermint) (lemon grass)
 Figure 26.6
Representative Sesquiterpenes

-Selinene
(celery)
 Figure 26.6
Representative Sesquiterpenes

-Selinene
(celery)
 Figure 26.6
Representative Sesquiterpenes

-Selinene
(celery)
 Figure 26.6
Representative Diterpenes

OH

Vitamin A
 Figure 26.6
Representative Diterpenes

OH

Vitamin A
 Figure 26.6
Representative Diterpenes

Vitamin A
 Figure 26.6
Representative Triterpene

tail-to-tail linkage of isoprene units

Squalene
(shark liver oil)
Common volatile oils
 Cloves
 Chinese breath
sweetener
 Used in many food,
drugs, cigarettes
 Myrtaceae
 Spice Islands
 Dutch destroyed many
plantations to drive up
the price (1700’s)
 Unopened flower buds
 CLOVE
DEFINITION: Cloves are
the dried flower buds of
Syzygium aromaticum
(Eugenia caryophyllus),
(Myrtaceaea).

Geographical Sources
Molucca or Clove Islands,
Zanzibar, Pemba,
Madagascar, Indonesia &
Brazil.
 CONSTITUENTS
14-21% Volatile oils
• Mainly eugenol & isoeugenol
• Sitosterol
• Stigmasterol
• Campesterol

Tannins
Triterpene acids & esters
Glycosides
CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol
Sesquiterpenes (α and β caryophyllenes)

Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils –

should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight
container, & should be protected from light &
heat.
 Active ingredients from cloves

 Clove oil contains..

 Eugenol ( about 85% from
oil)
• mixed with zinc oxide and used
for dental cement
• derivatives used as analgesics,
a variety of other things
• can be used to make vanilla
 Pyrogallol tanin
 CLOVE OIL - USES
Anti-septic
Aromatic
Stimulant
Flavouring Agent
 Citronella Oils
Latin: Cymbopogan
nardus
Family: Graminaceae
Extraction: Steam
Distillation
Part distilled: Fresh grass
Odor: Fresh, crisp,
lemony
Chemical Class: alcohol
 Major Constituents:

Alcohols: geraniol, borneol,

citronellol
Aldehydes: citronellal
Esters: butyrate & geranyl
formates
Phenol: isoeugenol
 USES
 Traditional Uses: antiseptic, antibacterial,
antidepressant, antispasmodic, anti-
inflammatory, deodorant, diaphoretic, diuretic
(?), febrifuge, fungicidal, insect repellent,
(mosquitos), stomachic, tonic,(uterine,
neurotonic, cardiotonic) stimulant, vermifuge.
Skin: excessive perspiration, oily skin and hair,
insect-mosquito repellent & room deodorizer.
Muscular/Skeletal: rheumatism and arthritis
pain.
 LESSON TAKE-AWAY
 Definitions of Volatile
Oils
 The properties of
volatile oil
 Methods of
Production of Volatile
Oils
 Herbs containing
Volatile Oils
 GINGER: Zingiber officinale
 Definition: Ginger is the
peeled or unpeeled
rhizome of Zingiber
officinale (Zingiberaceae).

 Common Names:
Jamaican ginger, Ginger
 Zingiber officinalis - Ginger
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES
• Jamaica
• China
• India Africa

HISTORY
Cultivated in India from the
earliest times. Used by
Greeks and Romans and
was a common article of
commerce in the European
Middle Ages.
 CULTIVATION & PREPARATION
 Grows well in subtropical
temperatures with high
rainfall.
 Grown by vegetative means.
 Mulching or is necessary as
the plant rapidly exhausts
minerals from the soil.
 When the stems wither, the
rhizomes are ready for
collection.
 Dried.
 MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
 Scraped/peeled herb has little
resemblance to the fresh herb
(loss in weight & shrinkage).
 Occurs in branched pieces
“hands” or “races”.
 Buds
 No cork
 Aromatic odour & pungent
taste.
 Unscraped rhizome:
resembles scraped herb –
 Covered with cork (brownish
layers)
 MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

 Cork cells – high starch

content
 Cork cells are absent in
the scraped drug.
 Outer zone of flattened
parenchyma & inner
zone of normal
parenchyma.
 Oil cells scattered in the
cortex.
 Zingiber officinale - CONSTITUENTS
 Volatile oils (1 – 2%)
 Camphene
 Cineole
 Citral
 Borneol
 Gingerol – pungent component – Anti-inflammatory
 Shogaols – increases bile secretion

 Sesquiterpene HC’s
 Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)

 Resins
 Starch
 Mucilage
 Zingiber officinale
 VARIETIES
 Chinese Ginger – sliced
 African ginger – darker (cortex is
grey – black in colour); lacks the
odour but more pungent than
Jamaican herb.

 ALLIED DRUGS
 Japanese ginger – Z. mioga
 Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes
preserved by boiling in syrup.

 ADULTERANTS
 Spent ginger
 Vegetable adulterants (detected with
microscopical examination).
 USES & ACTIONS
ACTIONS
 Carminative
 Stimulant
 Anti-emetic
 Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungal
 Sesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcer
 Gingerol – pungent component –
Anti-inflammatory
 Shogaols– increases bile secretion
& enhanced GIT activity

USES
 Motion Sickness
 Morning Sickness
 CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
DEFINITION: Cardamom
consists of the dried, nearly
dried ripe fruits of Elettaria
cardamomum var miniscula
(Zingiberaceae).

PARTS USED: Seeds (should

be kept in the fruit until ready
to be used – Prevents loss of
volatile oils).

(3RD most expensive spice).

 Elettaria cardamomum
 GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
 Sri Lanka
 India
 Guatemala

 HISTORY
 Traditional Indian
ceremonies
 PRODUCTION, COLLECTION &
PREPARATION
 Mainly obtained from
cultivated plants
(propagated by seedlings
or vegetatively
[problematic due to virus
infection]).
 Capsules on the same
plant ripen at different
times – important to
collect them before they
split.
 COLLECTION & PREPARATION
 Fruits are dried slowly
(outdoors or indoors).
 Too rapid drying – capsules
split & shed seeds
 Calyx at the apex of the stalk
and the stalk at the base may
be removed.
 Fruits are graded with a sift
into ‘longs’, ‘mediums’,
‘shorts’ & ‘tiny’.
 If they have been sulphur –
bleached (improved colour),
it will be aired outdoors
before packed for transport.
 MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
 Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing
from the rhizome.
 Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.
 Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.
 Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.
 Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains
x2 row of seeds.
 Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad.
 Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds)  paler in
unripe seeds.
 Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour
 Pungent taste
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
 Oil cells
 Predominant
Parenchyma
(yellow colour)
 Cells containing
silica
 Starch grains
VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS
 ADULTERATION
 Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp

(powdered).

 ALLIED HERBS
 Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula

 Other: E. cardamomum var major (more elongated &

sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)

 Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)

 Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)

 Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)

 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
 2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil
 Abundant starch (up to 50%)
 Fixed oil (1 – 10%)
 Calcium oxalate
 Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES
 Flavouring agent
(curries & biscuits)

 Liqueur manufacture

 Small amount is used

for pharmaceutical
manufacture
(Compound Tincture of
Cardamom).
 CINNAMON: Cinnamomum
zeylanicum
 DEFINITION: Cinnamon
is the dried bark of
Cinnamomum zeylanicum
(Lauraceae).

 GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Cultivated in Sri Lanka,
South India, Seychelles,
Madagascar, Martinique,
Cayenne, Jamaica &
Brazil.
 CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &
PREPARATION
Grown from seed
Cut down when 2-3 years
old.
After 5-6 shoots grow from
the stump (18 months),
shoots are harvested,
trimmed and fermented.
Bark is removed.
Peeled bark is then
stretched over a suitable
stick
Outer cortex is removed.
PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum

Individually scraped
barks are placed
inside each other.
Compound quills are
dried on wooden
frames in the open air
without exposure to
direct sunlight.
Sorted into grades.
 MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Normally received in shorter lengths
known as ‘cigar lengths’.
Consists of a single or double
compound quill about 6-10 mm
diameter of varying length.
Thickness of the quill varies according
to grade (good quality: Not >
0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm.
External surface: is yellow-brown,
shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres)
and occasional scars & holes
(leave/twig positions).
Inner surface: darker, longitudinally
striated.
Odour: fragrant
Taste: Warm, sweet & aromatic
 MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
 Transverse: absence of epidermis & cork
 Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls)
 Secondary phloem is composed of phloem
parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells,
phloem fibres & medullary rays.
 Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.
 Secretion cells: volatile oils and mucilage
 Calcium oxalates
 Cinnamomum - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils (at least
1.2 %)
• Phlobaphenes
• Mucilage
• Calcium Oxalate
• Starch
 CINNAMON OIL –
ADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBS
Adulterants
• Cinnamon Leaf Oil
• Oil of Cassia

Allied Herbs
• Cayenne Cinnamon – C. zeylanicum grown in
Brazil – not used in Britain
• C. loureirii – from Vietnam – Closely resembles
C. cassia
 Cinnamomum zeylanicum - USES
Flavouring agent
Mild astringent

Oil: Carminative
Germicide
 LEMON PEEL
Definition: Dried lemon
(Limonis Cortex) peel is
obtained from the fruit of
Citrus limon (Rutaceae).

Botanical Description:
Small tree, growing to 3-5 m
in height.

Geographical Sources
Mediterranean Regions
 Limonis Cortex –
COLLECTION & PREPARATION
Lemons are collected in
January, August &
November, before the
green colour changes to
yellow.
The smaller fruit, which
would not be sold on the
produce market, are used
in the preparation of oil of
lemon - the peel is
removed with a sharp
knife in the form of a
spiral band.
 Limonis Cortex –
CHARACTERISTICS
Dried lemon peel occurs
in spiral bands (2 cm
wide; 2-3 mm thick).
The outer surface is
rough & yellow; the
inner surface is pulpy
& white (anatomically
similar to that of an
orange peel).
Odour: Strong &
characteristic
Taste: aromatic & bitter
 Limonis Cortex –
CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Should contain at least
2.5% volatile oil
Vitamin C
Hesperidin (Flavonoid)
Mucilage
Calcium Oxalate

USES
Flavouring purposes
 LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis
Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of
the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon
(Rutaceae).

BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, without

the use of heat, from the fresh peel.

Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yields
oil of inferior quality.

Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by

expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceutical
purposes.

Geographical Sources:
Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.
 Preparation of Lemon Oils
i. Hand Methods
No longer applicable to
pharmaceutical oils
 Production of Lemon Oils
ii. Machine Processes
Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.
Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture,
rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing action
of the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method is
due to the fact that there is no contact between the oil & the
inner white part of the skin.
The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older
ones and give a higher yeild

iii.Distilled Oils
Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation,
mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is
much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.
 Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS
Terpenes – mainly limonene
Sesquiterpenes
Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)
Esters

Lemon oil has a tendency to resinify and

should be protected from the action of air
& light as much as possible.
 Oleum limonis –
ADULTATION & USES
ADULTERATION
Oil of turpentine
Terpenes from ‘terpeneless
oil of lemon’
Distilled oil of lemon
Oil of lemon-grass

USES
Perfumery
Flavouring
 TERPENELESS LEMON OIL
Definition: Oil prepared by
concentrating lemon oil in
vacuum until most of the
terpenes have been
removed, or by solvent
partition. The
concentrate is a
terpeneless oil, which has
a citral content of 40-50
%.
It is equal in flavouring to
10-15 times its volume of
lemon oil
BUCHU – Agathosma betulina
 Agathosma betulina –
CONSTITUENS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils
• Pulegone
• Menthone & isomenthone
• limonene
Diosmin
Mucilage
Resin
Calcium oxalates
Buchu camphor – Responsible for the diuretic action

USES/ACTIONS
Diuretic
Urinary Tract Anti-Septic – Used for UTI’s
 NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL
Definition: Nutmeg is the
dried kernel of the seed
of Myristica fragrans
(Myristicaceae).

Geographical Sources
Indigenous to the Molucca
Islands (Spice Islands)
Cultivated in Indonesia,
Malaysia & the West
Indies.
 NUTMEG – Myristica fragrans
HISTORY
First Introduced to the
Europeans by the Arabs.

Portuguese lost control of

the spice trade to the
Dutch, who maintained
complete monopoly by
destroying all trees in the
neighbouring islands &
preventing the export of
living seeds.
 CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &
PREPARATION
Trees can be grown from fresh seed
gown in the shell. The seeds
germinate after about 5 weeks.
When the plants are 6 months
old, they are transplanted to the
fields.

Nutmegs are dried in the shells

(process differs according to local
conditions). Normally they are
dried in the sun & covered at
night & rainy weather. They can
also be dried in the oven or over
low flames.

When completely dried, the kernel

rattles in the testa, which is then
cracked & the nutmeg extracted.
 MACROSCOPICAL
FEATURES
Nutmeg trees are
evergreen, growing up to
20 m in height.
Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm
long & 2 cm broad.
If not heavily limed, the
surface is a brown or grey
brown in colour.
Odour: Strong & aromatic
Taste: Pungent and slightly
bitter.
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Potassium acid tartrate
crystals
Parenchym with thin
brown walls
Oval oil cells
Feathery crystals of fat
Few tannin cells
(containing tannin &
starch)
NUTMEG – ALLIED HERBS
Papua nutmegs –
from M. argentea
(New Guinea) – little
odour & a
disagreeable taste.

Bombay nutmegs –
M. malabarica (India)
– lack the
characteristic odour of
the genuine herb.
 NUTMEG OIL
Nutmeg oil is distilled from the
kernels of Myristica fragrans.

CONSTITUENTS
Pinene
Sabinene
Camphene
Dipentene
Safrole
Eugenol & eugenol derivatives
Myristicin – a benzene: toxic to
humans (large does of nutmeg
or nutmeg oil may cause
convulsions).
 MACE
Common mace or Banda
mace consists of the
dried arillus or arillode of
M. fragrans.

Description: bright red

colour & lacks in aroma.
MACE – CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Volatile oils (similar to that
of nutmeg) – eugenol
derivatives are the main
active constituents –
responsible for the anti-
bacterial effects.
Nutmegs, maces & their
oils, are all used for
• Carminatives
• Flavouring
• Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea
of nutmeg – Ayurveda).

Also has 2 anti-microbial

resorcinols (Malabaricone
B and C)
 HISTORY OF CLOVE
Cloves were used in China as
early as 266 BC, and by the
4th century, they were known
in Europe, although very
expensive.
Same as with nutmeg, the
Dutch also destroyed all trees
from surrounding native
islands to secure a
monopoly, and cultivated
them only in a small group of
islands.
In 1770, the French managed to
introduce clove trees to
Mauritius, and started
cultivating them there, as well
as in Zanzibar, Penang and
Sumatra.
 COLLECTION & PREPARATION
The flower buds are collected
when the lower part turns
green-crimson. The cloves
are dried in the open air on
mats & separated from
their peduncles (forming
clove stalks which are also
sold commercially).

If left on the tree for too long,

the buds open & the petals
fall, leaving “brown cloves”.
Later the fruits (“mother
cloves”) are produced.
 MACROSCOPICAL
FEATURES
Cloves are 10-17.5 mm
long.
The head consists of 4
slightly projecting calyx
teeth, 4 membranous
petals and numerous
incurved stamens around
a large style.

Odour: Spicy & Pungent

Taste: Aromatic
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Heavy cuticularized epidermis
Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)
Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)
Stomata (epidermis of sepals)
Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)
Lignified sclereids
 USES OF CLOVE
Stimulant aromatic
Spice
For the preparation of
volatile oil
Sesquiterpenes:
potential anti-
carcinogenic
compounds
 CLOVE OIL
Oil distilled in Europe and
the US normally does
not need purification,
while oil distilled in
other areas (e.g.
Madagascar) does.
After purification the oil
is sold with varying
eugenol contents.
Oil of cloves is yellow or
colourless, is slightly
heavier than water.
 EUCALYPTUS LEAF
DEFINTION: Eucalyptus
leaf consists of the whole
or cut dried leaves of the
older branches of
Eucalyptus globulus,
(Myrtaceae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Portugal, SA, Spain, China,
Brazil, Australia, India &
Paraguay.
 Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION
MACROSCOPICAL
• Older dried leaves are
grey-brown & have lateral
veins. Secretory oil cells
are visible in leaves held
to the light.

MICROSCOPIC
• Epidermal cells have a
thick cuticle.
• Anisocytic stomata
• Mesophyll has
schizogenous oil glands
• Calcium oxalate crystals:
Prisms & Cluster crystals
 Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile Oil (at least 2
%)
sesquiterpene - Anti-
bacterial action
against oral
pathogens.
 EUCALYPTUS OIL
Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leaves
of various species of Eucalyptus and rectified.
They are produced in the same countries which
produce the dry herb.
Only a certain amount of species produce oil
suitable for medicinal use – the main criteria is a
high cineole content and low amounts of
phellandrene and aldehydes.

Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea, E.

smithii, E. globulus and E. australiana.
 CHARACTERISTICS &
CONSTITUENTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Colourless or pale yellow
liquid
Aromatic & camphoraceous
in odour.
Pungent & camphoraceous
in taste, which is followed
by a sensation of cold.

CONSTITUENTS
At least 70 volatile oils
(mainly cineole).
 EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES
Alleviating the symptoms of
nasopharyngeal
infections
Treating coughs
Decongestant.

Official preparations
Mixtures, inhalations,
lozenges and pastilles;
also applied externally as
ointments and liniments.
 FENNEL
DEFINITION: Fennel
consists of the dried ripe
fruits of Foeniculum
vulgare (Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Europe, India, China &
Egypt. Mediterranean
origin.
 ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

1-4 % Volatile oil

• trans-anethole
• Antethole
• Estragole
• Fenchone
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Glycosides
 ACTIONS & USES
ACTIONS
• Carminative
• Expectorant
• Aromatic
- All due to anethole (and
fenchone)

USES
Flatulence
Dyspepsia
Chronic coughs & catarrh
Foeniculum vulgare
 Foeniculum vulgare – USES
Culinary purposes
Used in medicine as a
flavouring
Carminative
 CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL
DEFINITION: Caraway
consists of the dried, ripe
fruits of Caram carvi
(Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Wild & Cultivated in Central
& Northern Europe,
Holland, Denmark,
Germany, Russia,
Finland, Poland,
Hungary, Britain, Egypt,
Morocco, Australia &
China
 MACROSCOPICAL
FEATURES
A biennial herb growing up
to 1 m in height.
Herb: Normally consists of
mericarps separated from
the pedicels. Fruits are
slightly curved, brown &
glabrous.
Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm
wide
Often the stigma & style are
still attached.
Characteristic aromatic
odour & taste
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Pitted sclerenchyma
secretory canals
Dark, red-brown cells
containing a pale
yellow or colourless
oleoresin
Thick cellulose walls
Calcium oxalate crystals
 ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1-7 % Volatile oils
• Carvone
• Limonene
• Carveole
8-20 % Fixed oils
Proteins
Calcium oxalates
Colouring matter
Resin
 CORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL
DEFINITION: Coriander is
the dried, nearly ripe fruit
of Coriandrum sativum
(Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Indigenous to Italy. Also
cultivated in Holland,
Central & Eastern
Europe, Mediterranean
(Morocco, Malta &
Egypt), China, India &
Bagladesh.
 MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Annual herb growing 0.7 m
in height with white or
pink flowers.
Drug: Normally consists of
whole cremocarps –
straw yellow & 2-4 mm in
diameter when ripe.
Considerable variation
occurs (e.g. Indian variety
> oval).
Apex has 2 styles.
Fruits have an aromatic
odour & spicy taste.
Unripe plant: unpleasant
mousy odour  same
odour oil has when made
from unripe fruit.
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Outer pericarp: stomata
& calcium oxalte
prisms.
Thick sclerenchyma
Testa:= brown flattened
cells
Endosperm is curved &
consists of
parenchymous cells
containing fixed oils.
 ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1.8 % Volatile oils
• Linalool/coriandrol
• Pinene
• Terpinene
• Limonene
• Cymene
• Non-linalool alchols & esters
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Phenolic acids
High fat content (16-28%)
Protein (11-17%)
 Coriandrum sativum - USES
Domestic purposes
(cooking - curries)
Pharmaceutically:
flavouring agent &
Carminative
 PEPPERMINT
& PEPPERMINT OIL
DEFINITION:
Peppermint is the
dried leaves of
Mentha piperita
(Labiate). It should
contain at least 1.2 %
volatile oil.

GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES:
Europe & America
 MACROSCOPICAL
FEATURES
All mints have a square
stem & creeping rhizome.
Black mint, which is the
most commonly cultivated
variety in England, has
purple stems and dark
green petiolate leaves
tinged with purple. Leaf
blades are 3-9 cm long
with a grooved petiolate
up to 1 cm long.
Pinnate venation.
Glandular trichomes: bright
yellow points (hand lens)
Small purple flowers appear
in late summer.
 MICROSCOPIC FEATURES
Diacytic stomata
Multicellular clothing
trichomes
2 types of glandular
trichomes (one with a
unicellar head; with a
multicellular head).
Calcium oxalate is
absent.
 Oleum Menthae
Oil of peppermint is
obtained from Mentha
piperita via steam
distillation using the
flowering tops.
Oil should contain at
least 44 % menthol,
15-32 & menthone
and 4.5-10 % menthyl
acetate.
Oleum Menthae - CONSTITUENTS
Menthol
Menthone & isomenthone
Menthyl acetate
Limonene
Cineole
Menthofuran
Pulegone
Cineole

OIL COMPOSITION: greatly

influenced by genetic
factors & seasonal variation.
 PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT
OIL USES
OIL: anti-bacterial,
cooling, carminative

HERB: Carminative