Motivation

Theories
Shiori B. Bano
 INTRODUCTION
• Motivating employees is one of the most important,
and one of the most challenging, aspects of
management. As we will see, there is no shortage of
advice about how to do it.
• Motivation is not simply about working hard it also
reflects your view of your own abilities.
• In this chapter, we’ll review the basics of motivation,
assess motivation theories, and provide an integrative
model that fits theories together.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Describe the three key elements of motivation.
2. Evaluate the applicability of early theories of
motivation.
3. Contrast the elements of self-determination theory
and goal-setting theory.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
4. Demonstrate the differences between self efficacy
theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory, and be able to
apply each theory in a workplace setting.
5. Demonstrate the differences between self-efficacy
theory, equity theory, and expectancy theory, and be able to
apply each theory in a workplace setting.
6. Assess the implications of employee job
engagement for management.
 PRE TEST

What motivates you in Would you prefer setting

your daily life? your goal for yourself
or from others? Why?
DEFINING MOTIVATION
● The processes that
account for an
individual’s intensity,
direction, and
persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.
INTENSITY
● describes how hard a
person tries. This is the
element most of us focus
on when we talk about
motivation.
DIRECTION
● High intensity is unlikely to
lead to favorable job-
performance outcomes unless
the effort is channeled in a
direction that benefits the
organization.
● Therefore, we consider the
quality of effort as well as its
intensity.
PERSISTENCE
● This measures how long a
person can maintain effort.
● Motivated individuals stay
with a task long enough to
achieve their goals, even
when they encounter
difficulties.
 HAWTHORNE STUDIES
INCREASED DROPPED LIGHT
LIGHT LEVEL LEVEL
Productivity in the
output rose for the experimental group
experimental group of decreased only when the
workers and for the light intensity had been
control group. reduced to that of
moonlight.
HAWTHORNE STUDIES
● Researchers isolated a small
group of women assembling
telephone relays from the
main work
● Over the next several years,
this small group’s output
increased steadily,
HAWTHORNE STUDIES
● The number of personal and
sick absences was
approximately 1/3 that of the
regular production
department.
● Group’s performance was
significantly influenced by
its “special” status.
 Unfortunately, however, research does
not validate Maslow’s theory. Maslow
provided no empirical substantiation,
and several studies that sought
to
validate it found no
support for it.
REVIVING HIERARCHY
● They propose that lower
CONCEPTlevel needs are the chief
concern of immature animals
or those with primitive
nervous systems,
● They also note distinct
underlying biological
systems for different types of
needs.
CONTEMPORA
RY
THEORIES
OF
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
● proposes that people prefer to
feel they have control over
Your their actions .
● so anything that makes a
Logo previously enjoyed task feel
more like an obligation than a
freely chosen activity will
undermine motivation.
SELF-DETERMINATION
CognitiveTHEORY
Evaluation
Theory
● a complementary theory that
Your hypothesizes that extrinsic
rewards will reduce intrinsic
Logo interest in a task.
● When people are paid for work, it
feels less like something they
want to do and more like
something they have to do.
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Self-concordance
● considers how strongly people’s
reasons for pursuing goals are
Your consistent with their interests and
core values.
Logo ● Across cultures, if individuals pursue
goals because of intrinsic interest,
they are more likely to attain goals,
are happier when they do, and are
happy even if they do not.
 What does self-determination theory
suggest for providing rewards?
• It suggests some caution in the use of
extrinsic rewards to motivate.
• Rewards and deadlines diminish
motivation if people see them as coercive
or controlling.
GOAL-SETTING THEORY
● Edwin Locke proposed that
intentions to work toward a
Your goal are a major source of
work motivation.
Logo ● goals tell an employee what
needs to be done and how
much effort is needed.
 GOAL-SETTING THEORY
Rather than
INCREASED
SPECIFIC PERFORMAN
Do easy goals

GOALS CE
HIGHER
DIFFICULT accepted PERFORMAN
GOALS CE
Rather than
Non-feedback
FEEDBACK
 FACTORS THAT AFFECTS GOALS-
PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP

GOAL TASK
COMMIT CHARACTERI NATIONAL
MENT STICS CULTURE
 GOAL COMMITMENT
(1) believes he can achieve the
goal and
Your (2)wants to achieve the goal.
Logo ● most likely to occur when made
public, when he/she has an
internal locus of control, when
the goals are self-set, and are
based at least partly on individual
ability
TASK CHARACTERISTICS
● Goals seem to affect
performance more strongly
Your when tasks are simple rather
than complex, well learned
Logo rather than novel,
independent rather than
interdependent, and on the
high end of achievability.
 GOAL-SETTING ISSUES
Although goal setting has positive
outcomes, it is not unequivocally
beneficial. For example, some goals
may be too effective.
Goals can lead employees to focus on a
single standard and exclude all others.
 EXAMPLES OF GOAL SETTING
• ISSUES
A goal to boost short-term stock prices may lead
organizations to ignore long-term success and even to engage
in unethical behaviour such as cooking the books to meet the
goal.
• Other studies show that employees
low in conscientiousness and
emotional stability experience greater
emotional exhaustion when their
leaders set goals.
 TWO TYPES OF WORK THOUGHTS AND
BEHAVIOURS

PROMOTION FOCUS PREVENTION FOCUS

strive for advancement and strive to fulfill duties and
accomplishment, and they obligations and avoid
approach conditions that move conditions that pull them
them closer toward desired goals. away from desired goals.
IMPLEMENTING

GOAL-SETTING
THEORY
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
(MBO)

● Emphasizes participatively
Your set goals that are tangible,
verifiable, measurable, and
Logo relate to the broader
organizational mission and
strategies.
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
(MBO)
 FOUR INGREDIENTS OFAN
MBO
EXPLICIT
GOAL TIME
SPECIFICITY
PARTICIPATION PERIOD
IN PERFORMA
DECISION NCE
MAKING FEEDBACK
 GOAL SETTING VS. MBO

GOAL
SETTING MBO
demonstrates that managers’ strongly advocates
assigned goals are usually just participation
as effective.
SELF–EFFICACY THEORY
● also known as social
cognitive theory or
Your social learning theory

Logo ● refers to an individual’s

belief that he is capable
of performing a task.
 HOW TO ACHIEVE HIGH LEVEL OF
SELF-EFFICACY
• employees whose
CY managers set difficult
ICA
FF goals for them will have
LF -E RY
SE HEO a higher level of self-
T I NG
E T T efficacy and set higher
AL -S Y
G O O R goals for their own
THE
performance.
 FOUR INGREDIENTS OF MBO
VERBAL
ENACTIVE PERSUASIO
MASTERY N

VICARIOUS
MODELLING AROUSAL
ENACTIVE MASTERY
● gaining relevant experience
Your with the task or job. If
you’ve been able to do the
Logo job successfully in the past,
you’re more confident you’ll
be able to do it in the future.
VICARIOUS MODELLING

● becoming more confident

Your because you see someone else
doing the task.
Logo ● most effective when you see
yourself as similar to the
person you are observing.
VERBAL PERSUASION
● becoming more confident
because someone convinces
you that you have the skills
necessary to be successful.
● Pygmalion effect—a form
of self-fulfilling prophecy in
which believing something
can make it true.
 AROUSAL
● leads to an energized state,
so the person gets “psyched
Your up” and performs better.

Logo ● But if the task requires a

steady, lower key perspective
arousal may in fact hurt
performance.
 EQUITY THEORY
● employees compare what
they get from their job (such
Your as pay, promotions,) to what
they put into it (such as
Logo effort, experience, and
education).
● They expect a reasonable
balance between their effort
and their rewards.
CHANGE INPUTS

exert less effort if

underpaid or
more if overpaid.
CHANGE OUTCOMES
individuals paid on a piece-
rate basis can increase their
pay by
producing a higher quantity
of units of lower quality.
DISTORT PERCEPTIONS OF
SELF
“I used to think I worked at
a moderate pace, but now
I realize I work a lot harder
than everyone else.”
DISTORT PERCEPTIONS OF
OTHERS

“Mike’s job isn’t as

desirable as I
thought.”
CHOOSE A DIFFERENT
REFERENT
“I may not make as
much as my brother-in-
law, but I’m
doing a lot better than
my DAD did when he
was my age.”
LEAVE THE FIELD

quit the job.

EXPECTANCY THEORY
● argues that the strength of
our tendency to act a
certain way
depends on the strength of
our expectation of a given
outcome and its
attractiveness.
 PROMOTION
EFFORT– PERFORMANCE– REWARDS–
PERFORMANCE REWARD PERSONAL GOALS
RELATIONSHIP RELATIONSHIP RELATIONSHIP
The probability perceived The degree to which the The degree to which
by the individual that individual believes organizational rewards
exerting a given amount of performing at a particular satisfy an individual’s
effort will lead to level will lead to the personal goals or needs and
performance. attainment of a desired the attractiveness of those
outcome. potential
rewards for the individual.
FOSTERINGCREATING
WORKPLACE
JOB
MOTIVATION
ENGAGEMENT

● the investment of an
employee’s physical,
cognitive, and emotional
energies into job performance.
 What makes people more likely to be
engaged in their jobs?
● One key is the degree to which an employee
believes it is meaningful to engage in work.
● Another factor is a match between the
individual’s values and those of the
organization.
 SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
• The motivation theories in this chapter differ in
their predictive strength.
• Self-determination theory and cognitive evaluation
theory have merits to consider. Goal-setting theory
can be helpful but does not cover absenteeism,
turnover, or job satisfaction. Reinforcement theory
can be helpful, but not regarding employee
satisfaction or the decision to quit.
 SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
• Equity theory’s strongest legacy is that it provided the
spark for research on organizational justice, which has
more support in the literature.

• Expectancy theory can be helpful, but assumes

employees have few constraints on decision making,
such as bias or incomplete information, and this limits
its applicability.
 SUMMARY/CONCLUSION
• Organizational justice is influenced by distributive,
procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice.
The relevance of each form of justice varies by
situation.

• Job engagement goes a long way toward explaining

various degrees of employee commitment, although
the outcomes of high engagement may not all be
desirable.
 POST TEST

Assuming you are a manager,

what is the best thing to do
What is the greatest
to recover your employees
motivation factor for that has experienced being
studying hard? unmotivated or negative
impacts from their previous
bosses?
THANKS
FOR Do you have any questions?
Ask me
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 REFERENCES
Cherry, K. (2020). The 5 Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved
from Very Well Mind website: https://www.verywellmind.com/
what-is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-4136760
A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 3rd ed., R. D. Frager and J. Fadiman
(eds.). © 1997. Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.