Circulatory system

Transporting gases, nutrients, wastes, and hormones

Chapter #32, pg. 650 - 665
Features and Functions
 Features
• Circulatory systems generally have three
main features:
• Fluid (blood or hemolymph) that
transports materials (both wastes &
nutrients).
• System of blood vessels
• A heart to pump the fluid through the
vessels
Types of circulatory systems

• Animals that have a circulatory system

have one of two kinds:
• Open: fluid is circulated through an
open body chamber.
• Closed: fluid is circulated through
blood vessels.
 Open system
• Arthropods and most
mollusks have an open
circulatory system.

• Hemolymph is
contained in a body
cavity, the hemocoel. A
series of hearts
circulates the fluid.
Internal organs are
bathed in the fluid.
 Closed system
• Vertebrates, annelid
worms, and a few
mollusks have a closed
circulatory system.

• Blood is moved through

blood vessels by the
heart’s action. It does
not come in direct
contact with body
organs.
 Thinking questions

• Why does an open circulatory system

limit the size of arthropods?
• Why did homeothermy (“warm-
bloodedness) only develop in organisms
with a closed circulatory system?
Blood
 Components

• The blood consists of two parts:

• Liquid Part; Plasma (55%)
• Solid Part; Blood Cells (45%)
 Plasma

• Plasma is a straw colored liquid that is 90% water and

10% dissolved substances such as glucose, amoni acids,
fatty acids, mineral salts, waste products such as urea,
hormones,insulin,adrenaline, plasma proteins,
prothrombin, fibrinogen, albumin, respiratory gases like
CO2 and O2.Function of the plasma; It transport all those
substances mentioned above as they are dissolved in it.
NB: Plasma without clotting factors in it is called serum.
Plasma
 Blood Cells

• There are three main types of blood cells:

• Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
• White Blood cells (Leucocytes)
• Platelets (Thrombocytes); fragments of
blood cells.
 Red Blood Cells
• Function: transports oxygen and to a smaller extent carbon
dioxide.

• The red blood cell is described as biconcave disk, this shape

assists the cell in fitting through the capillaries , it also increases
the surface area for oxygen absorption; more than if it was
spherical.
The cell does not have a nucleus when mature and contains a red
pigment called haemoglobin which is what binds to the oxygen.

• NB: The red blood cell doesn’t have more nuclues in order to
make more space for haemoglobin. The loss of the nuclues results
in the red blood cells beinig able to survive up to 90 days.
 Red Blood Cells
• When the red blood cells are destroyed they are sent to the liver
and the spleen; the protein parts are broken down to amino acids
to be used for other functions while the iron part is stored and
used to make new red blood cells. Whatever is remaining is
converted to bile and excreted as faeces.

•
Red blood cells have no mitochondria. If it had mitochondria it
would respire aerobically hence its function would be invalid. It
doesn’t need mitochondria as it is being pushed around the body
by the blood.

• Red blood cells are responsible for the colour of our blood. The
rate of production & destruction of the red blood cells is
determined by the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.
 Red Blood Cells

• RBCs are disc-shaped

cells that lose their
nucleus at maturity.

• Make up about 99% of

the blood’s cellular
component.

• Red color is due to

haemoglobin.
 Haemoglobin
• Haemoglobin is a
complex protein made
up of four protein
strands. Iron is used to
form heme groups.

• Each haemoglobin
molecule can carry four
oxygen atoms. The
presence of oxygen
turns hemoglobin
bright red.
 RBC lifespan
• RBCs live about 4
months. Iron from
hemoglobin is recycled
in the liver and spleen.

• The hormone
erythropoeitin, made by
the kidneys, stimulates
the production of RBCs
in red bone marrow.
 Thinking question
• One of the illegal drugs that
some top Olympic athletes
have been caught using is
erythropoetin. What would
this hormone do that would
give athletes an edge in
competitions?
 White Blood Cells
• White blood cells
defend against disease
by recognizing proteins
that do not belong to
the body.

• White cells are able to

ooze through the walls
of capillaries to patrol
the tissues and reach
the lymph system.
 White Blood Cells
• White Blood Cells- Leukocytes

• There are two types of white blood cells:

• Granulocytes

• Agranulocytes

• White blood cells fight against infections. All white blood cells are
capable of ameboid movement, which means they can squeeze
through the tiny gaps in the capallaries to get to the infected site.
All white blood cells have nuclei which can be easily seen with
the light microscope. There are about 7,000 per millimeter cube of
blood.
White Blood Cells
Granulocytes/Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes

• The nuclei in the granulocytes have different shapes. The nuclei

can change shape to suit the cell’s structure. The granulocytes can
be further broken down into 3 categories:

• Neutrophils

• Eosinophils

• Basophils

• They are called granulocytes because they contain granules inside

their cytoplasm & these granules contain subtances or secretions
that are specific to that cell.
 Neutrophils
• Neutrophils; the stains are neutral rather than
acidic or basic
• Neutrophils are also known as phagocytes.
They make up 70% of the total number of
white blood cells. There are 4,900 per mm3 of
blood. Their function is to engulf & digest
disease causing bacteria. The granules of the
neutrophils contain enzymes with
bacteriocidal action & their granules are
stained pink/lilac.
 Eosinophil

• Eosinophils; the stains are acidic

• They are involved in allergic reactions.
They possess antihistamine properties.
The granules contain antihistamine and
parasitic proteins. Their granules stain
red or orange.
 Basophil
• Basophils; the stains are basic (absorbs the
basic dyes)

These are involved in inflammation (swelling).

Inflammation helps our tissues to repair
themselves when damaged during an injury.
The granules found in the basophil contain
heparin (anticoagulant; prevents our blood
from clotting). It also contains histamine,
which is a vasodilator. Their granules are
stained blue.
A-granulocytes/Mononuclear Leukocytes

• They have an oval or bean-shaped nucleus.The A-granulocytes take up about 28% of all white
blood cells. Two main types of agranulocytes exist, these are:

(i) Monocytes

The monocytes when formed, spend about 30-40 hours in the blood , afterwhich they go into
the tissues and become macrophages (Phagocytic Cells); they engluf and destroy bacteria as
well as large particles that invade the body.
Together with the neutophils, macrophages act as a line of defense against infections

• (ii) Lymphocytes

These cells are rounded and posses only a small quantity of cytoplasm. They are found in
lymph and body tissues. There are two types of lymphocytes, they are:
(i) T-Cells
(ii) B- Cells

Both are involved in immune reactions such as:

- Antibody Production
- Graft Rejection
- Killing of tumour cells
 Thrombocytes/Platelets
• Thrombocytes/Platelets
Platelets are fragments of cytoplasm
(fragments of cells), derived from a cell
called a MEGKARYOCYTE. They are
about a quarter the size of a red blood
cell and are involved in blood clotting.
On average there are about 250000
platelets per mm3 of blood.
 Platelets

• Platelets are cell

fragments used in
blood clotting.

• Platelets are derived

from megakaryocytes.
Because they lack a
nucleus, platelets have
a short lifespan,
usually about 10 days.
 Blood clotting
• Platelets aggregate at
the site of a wound.

• Broken cells and

platelets release
chemicals to stimulate
thrombin production.

• Thrombin converts the

protein fibrinogen into
sticky fibrin, which
binds the clot.
 Thinking question

• If a person had a defect in the gene for

fibrinogen, what health problems could
this cause?
Blood Vessels
Classes of blood vessels
• Blood vessels fall into three major
classes:
• Arteries and arterioles carry blood
away from the heart.
• Veins and venules carry blood to the
heart.
• Capillaries allow exchange of
nutrients, wastes and gases.
 Blood Vessels
• Each artery and vein consists of three main layers;
•
The Endothelium: the inner lining of the vein or the
artery and is made up of squamous epithelial cells
(epithelial cells functions to line the body protecting it
from mechanical damage and infection)
• The Tunica media: Known as the middle coat. This is
the middle layer made of smooth involuntary muscle
and elastic fibres (elastin).
• The Tunica externa: Known as the external coat. It is
made up of inelastic white fibres (collagen).
Blood Vessels
 Arteries
• Arteries are thick-
walled, and lined
with smooth
muscle.

• Arteries expand
with each heart
beat, and contract
afterwards, helping
to move blood.
 Arteries
• Arteries

• They function to take oxygenated blood from the heart to different

tissues around body. There are two exceptions which are:

• The Pulmonary artery; Takes deoxygenated blood from the heart the
blood to get oxygenated via gaseous exchange in the alveoli of the lung.

• The Umbilical artery; Takes deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the
placenta to become oxygenated via gaseous exchange.

• As the arteries are taking blood directly from the heart, the blood within
them is under very high pressure, hence the walls of the arteries are thick
and the middle layer is mainly composed if elastic fibres to allow for the
blood vessels to dilate but not rupture when the heart contracts and
forces blood into it. Between heart beats the arteries undergo Elastic
Recoil (snaps back) and contract, tending to smooth out the flow of blood
along their length.
Arteries
 Arteries
• NB: The arteries that are further away from the heart have a
similar structure to those that are close to the heart but they have
more smooth muscle fibres in the middle layer (the blood is not
under such high

• arteries and so control the flow of blood to different parts of the

body.

• Arteries have no valves, as we want no restrictions. The blood is

under high pressure so it’s going to go in one direction. Also
based on the fact that the blood is under such high pressure this
creates a pulse.
The artery has a small lumen and they carry a smaller volume of
blood.
 Arterioles

• Arterioles branch off of arteries.

• Arterioles can constrict to direct and control
blood flow. They may, for example, increase
blood supply to the skin to allow more heat to
dissipate, or constrict during stress to redirect
blood to the heart and muscles.
 Arterioles

• Arterioles

• Arterioles consist of endothelium wrapped round by a few muscle fibres at

intervals. Many arterioles possess sphincters (circular muscle that contracts
or relax- control the flow of blood into the capillary network) at the point
where they enter the capillaries. Also present in certain regions of the body
are cross connections or shunt vessels which act as short cuts between
arterioles and venules and sereve to regulate the quantity of blood which
flow though thr capillary bed.
** If there is to much blood in the arterioles, some is taken by the shunt
vessels directly to the venules to be taken back to the heart**
 Capillaries
• Capillaries
Smallest of the blood vessels. Their walls consist only of endothelium; this makes
them extremely thin, which allows for rapid diffusion of materials between the
blood and the cells; the substances travel a short distance.
Capillaries are the blood vessels responsible for transporting substances that are
present in the blood directly to the tissues. They are numerous and highly branched;
thus providing a large surface are for diffusion. They are so numerous that no one cell
is any more than 25 micrometers away from a capillary.
The capillaries have tiny spaces in their walls, where the endothelial cells do not fit together
perfectly. These gaps in the walls of the capillaries allow plasma to leak into the spaces
around the tissues. It also gives white blood cells a chance to escape in order to combat
infections.
Capillaries have a narrow diameter and so permeate the tissues, which means that
no cell is far from a capillary. Their lumen is so narrow (around 7 micrometers in
diameter) that the red blood cells are squeezed flat against the side. This brings
them even closer (as little as 1 micrometer) to the cells to which they supply
oxygen.
 Capillaries
• Body tissues contain a
vast network of thin
capillaries.
• Capillary walls are only
one cell thick, allowing
exchange of gases,
nutrients, and wastes.
• Capillaries are so fine
that RBCs must line up
single-file to go through
them.
 Venules

• Venules are thin-walled collectors of

blood.
• Low pressure in the venules allows the
capillary beds to drain into them.
 Venules
• Venules are thin-walled collectors of blood.
• Low pressure in the venules allows the
capillary beds to drain into them. Venules
• Blood form the capillary beds drain into the
venules whose walls consist of a thin a layer of
collagen fibres, muscles and elastic tissue
which covers and endothelium.They are tough
and inelastic and they pass blood back to the
veins.
 Veins
• Veins
The function of the vein is to transport blood back to the heart, hence all veins
transport deoxygenated blood. However there are two exceptions, these are:

• The Pulmonary Vein; takes oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

• The Umbilical Vein; takes oxygenated blood from the placenta to the heart the
foetus.

• Their tunica media is much thinner than that of an artery so this means there are
less elastic fibres and less muscle. This is because the blood being transported in
the veins is not under as high of a pressure like that in the artery.
The tunica externa of the vein is made up of collagen fibres to prevent them from
bursting more from external pressures such as physical forces than the blood
pressure within them.
** Veins are found closer to the surface of the skin unlike the arteries that are found
deeper within the layers of skin (the blood in them is under high pressure so if an
artery is cut, the blood is going to spray out)**
Veins contain valves called Semilunar Valves; to prevent the blood from flowing
backwards, which is might otherwise do because the pressure is so low.
Veins
 Veins
• Veins have thinner
walls than arteries.

• Contraction of skeletal
muscles helps move
blood up the limbs and
back to the heart.

• Valves in the veins

prevents backflow of
blood.
 Thinking questions
• Besides the ability to contract and move
blood, why do arteries need to be so
thick and strong?
• Varicose veins are veins in the legs that
are swollen, stretched, and painful.
What factors could lead to this
condition, and how can varicose veins be
prevented?
 Atherosclerosis
• LDL cholesterol forms
plaques in arteries,
triggering
inflammation.

• The immune system

forms a hard cap over
the plaque, partially
blocking the artery.
Caps can rupture,
creating clots that can
close off an artery.
 Preventing heart attacks
• Both genetic and environmental factors
contribute to atherosclerosis.
• Blood LDL cholesterol can be reduced by a
low-fat diet that emphasizes high-fiber foods
and “good” fats (monounsaturated fats,
omega-3 oils).
• Regular exercise also helps reduce LDL
cholesterol.
 Thinking question

• Some people who are at high risk for

heart attacks may be advised by their
doctors to take low doses of aspirin
daily. What effects does aspirin have
that would help prevent heart attacks?
Heart
 The Vertebrate Heart
• Vertebrate hearts are separated into two
types of chambers
• Atria (singular: atrium): receive blood
from body or lungs. Contractions of the
atria send blood through a valve to the
ventricles.
• Ventricles: receive blood from atria,
contract to send blood to body or lungs.
 The Heart
• The heart is surrounded by a tough sac called the
pericardium, the outer part of which consists of
inelastic white fibres. The inner part is made up of two
membranes;
(i) Inner Membrane – Attached to the heart.
(ii) Outer Membrane – Attached to the fibrous tissue.
Pericardial fluid is secreted between the two
membranes to reduce friction between the heart wall
and the surrounding tissues when the heart is beating.
The inelastic nature of the pericardium prevents the
heart rom being overstretched or overfilled with blood.
Structure of the Heart
 Structure of the Heart
• The heart is made up of 4 chambers divided into upper
and lower chambers. Also the heart is divided into a
left and right side.
The Upper Chambers are called Atria (receives blood
from the blood the veins and then pumps that blood
into the ventricles)and the Lower Chambers called
Ventricles (receives blood from the atria and pumps it
into the arteries to be delivered to the rest of the
body). The heart is separated into a left and right side
by a structure called a Septum.
The left side is responsible for receiving and pumping
out Oxygenated blood, while the right side is receiving
and pumping out Deoxygenated blood.
 Four-chambered heart
• The four-chambered
heart, seen in birds and
mammals, allows
complete separation of
oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.

• Complete separation is
necessary to support a
fast metabolism found
in homeotherms.
 Structure of the Heart
• The walls of the atria and ventricles are made up of muscle tissue
called MYOCARDIUM.
The ventricles have a thicker muscular wall than the atria as it is
responsible for forcing the blood out of the heart into the rest of the
body, hence this requires a greater pressure.

• The innermost layer of the heart wall is the endocardium

• The outermost layer is called the epicardium.

• NB: The left ventricle has the thickest muscular wall as it pumps blood
around the body while the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs.

• The right atrium is larger that the left atrium because it receives blood
from the entire body, while the left atrium only receives blood from
the lungs.
Structure of the Heart
 Structure of the Heart
• The atria are separated from the ventricles by
ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES , namely the
Bicuspid Valve on the left side of the heart and
the Tricuspid Valve on the right side of the
heart.
Each valve is attached to a set of fibrous cords,
which are in turn attached to extensions of the
ventricular wall called PAPILLARY MUSCLES.
These help to prevent the valves from turning
inside out when blood is being pumped out of
the heart.
 Structure of the Heart
• The atria are separated from the ventricles by
ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES , namely the
Biscuspid Valve on the left side of the heart
and the Tricuspid Valve on the right side of the
heart.
Each valve is attached to a set of fibroud cords,
which are in turn attached to extensions of the
ventricular wall called PAPILARY MUSCLES.
These help to prevent the valves from turning
inside out when blood is being pumped out of
the heart.
 Structure of the Heart
• Associated with the heart are 4 main blood vessels, these are as follows:

• Aorta

• Vena Cava

• Pulmonary Artery

• Pulmonary Vein

• The arteries ( Aorta and Pulmonary Artery) are directly connected

to ventricles, Aorta to the left and Pulmonary artery to the right.
The veins are connected to the atria, Pulmonary vein to the left
and the Vena Cava (Superior and Inferior) to the right.
NB: The Inferior Vena Cava takes blood from the lower part of
the body to the heart while the Superior Vena Cava takes blood
from the head and other parts above the heart back to the heart.
Heart Anatomy
 Structure of the Heart
• The circulatory system of mammals is
described as the Double Circulatory
System because blood travels through the heart
twice on its journey around the body once.
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right side of the heart (right
atria) via the Vena Cava, the blood is pumped into the right
ventricle then into the pulmonary artery to the lungs to be
oxygenated.

• Once oxygenated the blood from the lungs is pumped into the
left atrium via the pulmonary vein, it is then pumped into the left
ventricle then to the aorta to be circulated around the body.
NB: Every time the heart beats, blood enters and leaves the heart
at the same time.
 Structure of the Heart
• Pulmonary Circulation: Movement of the blood in the
pulmonary vessels. When deoxygenated blood travels
from the heart in the pulmonary artery to the lungs
then from the lungs to the pulmonary vein back to the
heart.
•
Systemic Circulation : Describes the journey of
oxygenated blood travelling from the left side of the
heart around the body then back to the right side of
heart (deoxygenated) via the Vena Cava.
“Dual pump” operation

The four-chambered heart acts as two pumps.

 The Cardiac Cycle
• Describes the evens that occur during one heart beat.
The events are:

• Systole

• Diastole

• The heart (cardiac muscle) is described as being myogenic; this

means that the heart controls its own contraction and not the
brain, that is, it does not need nerve impulses. Contractions are
initiated within the heart by the SINO-ATRIAL NODE , it is also
called SAN or the Pacemaker, which is found in the right atrium,
this extra ordinary tissue acts as a clock and contracts
spontaneously and rhythmically about once a second, even when
surgically removed from the heart.
 The Cardiac Cycle
• Describes the evens that occure during one heart beat.
The events are:

• Systole

• Diastole

• The heart (cardiac muscle) is described as being myogenic; this

means that the heart controls its own contraction and not the
brain, that is, it does not need nerve impulses. Contractions are
initiated within the heart by the SINO-ATRIAL NODE , it is also
called SAN or the Pacemaker, which is found in the right atrium,
this extra ordinary tissue acts as a clock and contracts
spontaneously and rhythmically about once a second, even when
surgically removed from the heart.
 Keeping Time
• The sinoatrial (SA)
node is nervous tissue
that times heart beats.

• The SA node causes

atria to contract, and
sends the signal to the
atrioventricular (AV)
node to signal the
ventricles to contract.
Generation of the Heart beat
Generation of the Heart beat
• The cardiac cycle has three stages, these are:

1. Atrial Systole: The sino-atrial node contracts

and emits electric impulses throughout the
atria, which both contract, pumping blood into
the ventricles. The ventricles are electrically
insulated from the atria by a ring of non-
conductive tissue called the ATRIO-
VENTRICULAR SEPTUM, so they don’t
contract at the same time.
Generation of the Heart beat
• 2. Ventricular Systole: The electrical impulses then pass through a
group of cells called the atrio-ventricular node also known as the
AVN, which lies between the atria.

• The atrio-ventricular node after a short delay of 0.1 or 0.2 seconds

conveys the electrical impulses between the ventricles along a
series of specialized muscle fibres known as the BUNDLE OF HIS
and the purkyne fibres.

• The bundle of his conducts electric impulse to the base of the

ventricles where the bundle branches into smaller fibres called
purkyne tissues. The electrical impulse that passes to the purkyne
tissues causes the ventricles to contact quickly at the same time
from the apex of the heart upwards.
Generation of the Heart beat

• If both the atria and the ventricles

contract at the same time, the blood will
not be pumped out of the heart
• 3.Diastole: This is when the atria and the
ventricles relax.
•
Generation of the Heart beat

• If both the atria and the ventricles

contract at the same time, the blood will
not be pumped out of the heart
• 3.Diastole: This is when the atria and the
ventricles relax.
•
Generation of the Heart beat

• If both the atria and the ventricles

contract at the same time, the blood will
not be pumped out of the heart
• 3.Diastole: This is when the atria and the
ventricles relax.
•
Generation of the Heart beat

• If both the atria and the ventricles

contract at the same time, the blood will
not be pumped out of the heart
• 3.Diastole: This is when the atria and the
ventricles relax.
•
Control of the Heart Rate
• The basic heart rate is controlled by the pacemaker (sino-atrial node) it
initiates the heart beat.
The heart beat is also under nervous and hormonal control.

NERVOUS CONTROL
There is a special region in our brain known as the medulla, which is a
part of the autonomic nervous system (we do not control it) and it
contains the two centres that control the heart rate; one of the centre
speeds up the heart rate while one slows it down.
The region of the medulla that speeds up the heart rate is the Cardiac
Accelerator Centre and the region that slows it down is the Cardiac
Inhibitory Centre.

The Autonomic Nervous System can be further divided into two sub-
systems; these are the Para-Sympathetic Nervous System and the
Sympathetic Nervous System.
Control of the Heart Rate
Control of the Heart Rate
Control of the Heart Rate

• There are nerves that are connected to the PNS and the SNS that are also linked to the
Sino-atrial Node.

• The Sympathetic Nerves link the Cardiac Accelerator to the SAN and AVN, while the
Para-Sympathetic Nerves link the Cardiac Inhibitory Centre to the SAN and AVN.
In addition, there are also receptors in the blood vessels and the aorta (aortic arch)
and Vena Cava. When stretched (because of extra blood) it sends impulses to the
medulla to cause a response the amount of blood flowing through it at a particular
time.

Usually if the impulse comes from the Vena Cava then it causes the heart rate to
increase; if there is a large amount of deoxygenated blood entering the heart via the
Vena Cava this would mean at the heart must speed up to supply tissues with
oxygenated blood.
If the impulse comes from the Aorta/ Aortic Arch the heart rate slows down as a
failsafe mechanism to prevent the heart from being overworked.
Control of the Heart Rate

• HORMONAL CONTROL
Hormones such as Adrenaline and Thyroxin speed up the
heart rate.
Thyroxin is involved in the regulation of the metabolic rate;
when released it increases the metabolic rate , with the increase
in metabolic rate this means that there is a greater need for
oxygen so the heart rate speeds up.
Adrenalin is the fight of flight hormone.

Other things that control our heart rate are:

1. Emotions
2. Stress
3. Sights and Sounds.
Factors Affecting the Heart
Rate
•High pH decreases the heart rate while a low pH increases

•In low temperatures the heart rate decreases (trying to conserve the heart),
while high temperatures increase the heart rate as the body is trying to get rid
of the excess heat.

•Mineral Ions ; depending on the type it will increase or decrease the heart
rate

•SHORT TERM EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON THE CARDIOVASCULAR

SYSTEM

When exercising we use energy; this would mean that the body needs more
oxygen; hence the heart rate must increase. Hence the effects of this are the
increase in the heart rate and the stroke volume (the amount of blood that is
pumped out of the heart with each heart beat).
 Blood Pressure

• Blood pressure is the force of blood on

the walls of the arteries.
 Blood Pressure

• Blood pressure is the force of blood on

the walls of the arteries.
 Blood pressure

• Systolic pressure =
pressure when the
heart contracts.

• Diastolic pressure =
pressure between
heart beats.
Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
•Five factors influence blood pressure:
•Cardiac output
•Peripheral vascular resistance
•Volume of circulating blood
•Viscosity of blood
•Elasticity of vessels walls
Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Blood pressure increases with increased
cardiac output, peripheral vascular
resistance, volume of blood, viscosity of
blood and rigidity of vessel walls.
• Blood pressure decreases with decreased
cardiac output, peripheral vascular
resistance, volume of blood, viscosity of
blood and elasticity of vessel walls.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Cardiac Output

• Cardiac output is the volume of blood flow from the heart

through the ventricles, and is usually measured in litres per
minute (L/min). Cardiac output can be calculated by the stroke
volume multiplied by the heart rate.

• Stroke volume: The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle

of the heart in one contraction.

• Heart rate: number of beats per minute

• Any factor that causes cardiac output to increase, by elevating

heart rate or stroke volume or both, will elevate blood pressure
and promote blood flow.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
•These factors include sympathetic stimulation, the catecholamines
epinephrine and norepinephrine, thyroid hormones, and increased
calcium ion levels.

• Conversely, any factor that decreases cardiac output, by decreasing

heart rate or stroke volume or both, will decrease arterial pressure
and blood flow.

•These factors include: parasympathetic stimulation, elevated or

decreased potassium ion levels, decreased calcium levels, anoxia, and
acidosis.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Peripheral Vascular Resistance

• Peripheral vascular resistance refers to compliance, which is the ability

of any compartment to expand to accommodate increased content. A
metal pipe, for example, is not compliant, whereas a balloon is.

• The greater the compliance of an artery, the more effectively it is able

to expand to accommodate surges in blood flow without increased
resistance or blood pressure. Veins are more compliant than arteries
and can expand to hold more blood.

• When vascular disease causes stiffening of arteries (e.g.,

atherosclerosis or arteriosclerosis), compliance is reduced and
resistance to blood flow is increased. The result is more turbulence,
higher pressure within the vessel, and reduced blood flow. This
increases the work of the heart.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Volume of Circulating Blood
• Volume of circulating blood is the amount of blood
moving through the body. Increased venous return
stretches the walls of the atria where specialized
baroreceptors are located.
• Baroreceptors are pressure-sensing receptors. As the
atrial baroreceptors increase their rate of firing and as
they stretch due to the increased blood pressure, the
cardiac centre responds by increasing sympathetic
stimulation and inhibiting parasympathetic
stimulation to increase HR. The opposite is also true.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Viscosity of Blood

• Viscosity of blood is a measure of the blood’s thickness and is

influenced by the presence of plasma proteins and formed elements in
the blood.

• Blood is viscous and somewhat sticky to the touch. It has a viscosity

approximately five times greater than water.

• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s thickness or resistance to flow, and is

influenced by the presence of the plasma proteins and formed elements
within the blood.

• The viscosity of blood has a dramatic effect on blood pressure and

flow. Consider the difference in flow between water and honey. The
more viscous honey would demonstrate a greater resistance to flow
than the less viscous water. The same principle applies to blood.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Elasticity of Vessel Walls

• Elasticity of vessel walls refers to the capacity to resume its normal shape
after stretching and compressing. Vessels larger than 10 mm in diameter
are typically elastic. Their abundant elastic fibres allow them to expand
as blood pumped from the ventricles passes through them, and then to
recoil after the surge has passed.

• If artery walls were rigid and unable to expand and recoil, their
resistance to blood flow would greatly increase and blood pressure
would rise to even higher levels, which would in turn require the heart to
pump harder to increase the volume of blood expelled by each pump
(the stroke volume) and maintain adequate pressure and flow.

• Artery walls would have to become even thicker in response to this

increased pressure.
 Factors Affecting Blood
Pressure
• Elasticity of Vessel Walls

• Elasticity of vessel walls refers to the capacity to resume its normal shape
after stretching and compressing. Vessels larger than 10 mm in diameter
are typically elastic. Their abundant elastic fibres allow them to expand
as blood pumped from the ventricles passes through them, and then to
recoil after the surge has passed.

• If artery walls were rigid and unable to expand and recoil, their
resistance to blood flow would greatly increase and blood pressure
would rise to even higher levels, which would in turn require the heart to
pump harder to increase the volume of blood expelled by each pump
(the stroke volume) and maintain adequate pressure and flow.

• Artery walls would have to become even thicker in response to this

increased pressure.
 Thinking questions

• Hypertension (high blood pressure) puts

people at risk for heart disease. What
long-term effects would an increase in
blood pressure have on the heart?
• What other organ system is involved in
hypertension?