Chapter One: Data: Is A Collection of Raw Facts. Information: Is A Processed Data in The Form That Is Meaningful To

Chapter One
Introduction
Data: is a collection of raw facts.

Information: is a processed data in the form that is meaningful to
the user.
Information System is a system that:
Receives data and instruction
Processes the data as per the instruction
Produces output
Stores data/information for future use

04/15/2021 Database System 1
Introduction to Database
Traditional way of data/information handling where cards and paper
are used for the purpose. Typing the data on paper and put in a file
cabinet. The data storage and retrieval will be performed using human
labour

Con’t..
Limitations Traditional Database :

Prone to error
Data loss
Redundancy
Inconsistency
Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
difficult to compile the information
Limited to small size information
Cross referencing is difficult
Database
Is a collection of related data in an organized way.
Is logically related data where these logically related data

comprises: entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules
of an organization's information.
Also contains a description of the data which called as

“Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or
“Data about Data”.
E.g. book database

Database
Databases and database technology are having a major impact on the

growing use of computers.
Play a critical role in almost all areas where computers are used,
including Business, Engineering, Medicine, Law, Education, And
Library Science, Etc.
Designed once and used simultaneously by many users.

Database
The advantages of a database approach over the traditional and paper-

based methods of record keeping will :-
Compactness: no need for possibly voluminous paper files.
Speed: can retrieve and change data faster than a human can.
Accuracy: timely, accurate and up-to-date information is available

at any time
Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same
data instead of storing data in redundant manner for each user.
Redundancy can be reduced: In non database or non centralized
systems each application or department keeps its own private files.

Database
Integrity can be maintained: The problem of integrity is the problem

of ensuring the data in the database is accurate
Security restrictions can be applied: Different rules can be

established for each type of access (retrieve, insert, delete, etc.) to each
of information to the database.

Con’t..
Limitations and risk of Database
Complexity in designing and managing data
The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system
Complex backup and recovery services from the users perspective
Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency
High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central

system.

Database Systems
A computerized record keeping system. Users of the database can perform a
variety of operations. Such as:
Retrieving data from existing file
Adding new data to existing file
Adding new data to empty file
Receives data and instruction
Modifying data to existing file
Deleting data from existing file
Searching for target information

component of database system
A database system involves four major components:

Hardware :consists of secondary storage media.
Data :The actual data stored in the database system may be stored as a
single database or distributed in many distinct files and treated as one.
Software :DBMS is responsible for the overall management of
communications between the user and the database
User and designer of database:there are group of roles played by
different stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database system.

Con’t..
Database Administrator (DBA)

Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources
(the database itself, the DBMS and other related software)
Authorizing access to the database
Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software
resources
Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of
the system
Involves in all steps of database development

Database Management System(DBMS)
Is a collection of programs that enables users to create and
maintain a database.
Example: Ms Access, SQL Server, My SQL, Oracle etc.
Is general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of
Defining database
Constructing database
Manipulating databases for various applications
Defining a database: involves specifying the data types,

structures, and constraints for the data to be stored in the database.
Con’t…
Constructing the database: is the process of storing the data
itself on some storage medium that is controlled by the
DBMS.
Manipulating a database: to retrieve specific data, updating
the database to reflect changes in the mini world, and
generating reports from the data.
Sharing: allows multiple users to access data.

Components of DBMS Environment
A DBMS is software package used to design, manage, and
maintain databases.
It facilities to define the database, manipulate the content of the
database and control the database.
These facilities will help the designer, the user as well as the
database administrator to discharge their responsibility in
designing, using and managing the database.
It provides the following facilities:

Con’t…
Data Definition Language (DDL):

A Language used to define each data element
required by the organization.
Used to setup a database to create, drop, rename
and alter table with the facility of handling
constraints
Con’t…
Data Manipulation Language (DML):

Is a core command used by end-users and programmers to insert,
delete, and update the data in the database.
Provides basic data manipulation operations on data held in the
database.
Language for manipulating the data organized by the appropriate
data model

Con’t…
Data Query Language (DQL):

Language for accessing or retrieving the data organized by the
appropriate data model
Since the required data or Query by the user will be extracted using
this type of language, it is also called "Query Language“ model
Procedural DQL: user specifies what data is required and how to
get the data.
Non-Procedural DQL: user specifies what data is required but not
how
04/15/2021 it is to be retrieved
Database System 17
Con’t…
Data Control Language (DCL):

The database administrator should have the facility to control the
overall operation of the system.
The commands include grant or revoke privileges to access the

database or particular object within the database and to store or
remove database transactions

Types Of Database Model
A model is a representation of real world objects and events and their
associations. Data model can be divided into four:
Hierarchical database model: Consists of an ordered set of
trees in a parent child mode.
Connection between child and its parent is called a Link.
1-1 or 1-M link is allowed.
It is inflexible
Used widely in applications like bank, tecom etc.
Easy to understood
Top down ways of viewing business entity
Allows a node to have only one parent.

Con’t..
Network model: is the extension of the hierarchical structure because
it allows many-to-many relationships to be managed in a tree-like
structure that allows multiple parents.
Records data in a database as a collection of records, but unlike in the
case of hierarchical model, here a node can have any number of
parents.
Linked records are called set.
Object-oriented Database Model: information is represented in the
form of objects as used in object-oriented programming.

Con’t..
Relational model: It is stored along with its

entities. A table has two properties rows and columns.
Rows represent records and columns represent
attributes.
 Most current DBMS technologies use relational
model

Steps of Database Design
Information Systems Design in general involves three steps
Requirements analysis – specifies what the system is required to do

based on user input.
Design – specifies how the system will address the requirements.
Implementation – translates design specifications into a working

system.

Steps In Requirements Analysis for Database
Identify scope of the design effort.
Establish metadata collection standards - who to interview, what to
collect - how to structure interview.
Identify user views – extracted by reviewing user tasks, types of
decisions. Forms, reports, graphs, maps can be useful information
for defining views. User view- subset of data used by a user in a
specific context
Build a data dictionary - define and describe each item in detail:
name, description, type, length, range and relationships
Identify data volumes and usage patterns how much data is used
and how frequently is data change.
Identify operational (functional) requirements..

Con’t..
Design of a database involves three types of designing

steps:
Conceptual Design: Synthesis of information from
requirements analysis according to semantic rules.
Outcome is a conceptual model. The conceptual model
describes entities, attributes and relations among entities
independent of implementation details.
Logical Design: Transforms the conceptual data model
into an internal model - schema that can be processed by
a particular DBMS. For example E/R model to relational
model mapping.
Con’t..
Physical Design: Involves design of internal storage

structures, record formats, access methods, record
blocking and soon.

Chapter two
Conceptual level data design: Refers to the Entity Relationship(E/R) Data Model .
Entity - Relationship (E/R) : Views the real world as a set of basic objects (entities)
and relationships among these objects.
It represents the overall logical structure of the database
The three basic notions of the E/R model are:
Entity: represents existing real-world objects or concepts, such as places, objects,

events, persons, orders, customers, and so on.
Relationship: represents associations between objects, such as the fact that a

customer may place an order.
Attribute: describes the entity, such as the invoice date or the customer first name.
04/15/2021 Database System 2-1

Entity set
An entity set is a set consisting of the same type of entities that share the
same properties.
Eg “EMPLOYEES”(EMPLOYEE1, EMPLOYEE2,
EMPLOYEE3,etc ) entity set represents all the set of employees
Entities are classified as independent (Strong) or dependent (Weak).

A strong (independent) entity: is one that does not rely on other
entities for identification.
A weak (dependent) entity: is one that relies on other entities for
identification.
An individual occurrence of an entity set is also known as an
instance (object ).
Types of attributes
Are descriptive properties that are associated with an entity. A set of
attributes describe an entity.
A particular instance of an attribute is called a value. For example,

“Employee Id” and “Name” are the attributes of the
“EMPLOYEES” entity set; and “XYZ” is one value of the attribute
“Name”.
Attributes can be classified as:
Identifiers or
Descriptors.

Cont..
Identifiers: more commonly called keys, uniquely identify an instance
of an entity.
Example:“Employee Id” uniquely identifies an employee entity from
the entity set.
Descriptor: describes a non-unique characteristic of an entity instance.
Example: “Name” is a descriptor for the “EMPLOYEES” entity set
Other way of categorizing Attributes is as Simple and Composite
attributes.
Simple Attributes: are attributes also known as Atomic Attributes that
can not be divided into subparts.
Example: “Age” and “Gender” of the “EMPLOYEES” entity set.

Cont..
Composite Attributes: are attributes that are composed of
smaller subparts that can be subdivided into the subparts
(Attributes).

Cont..
Another classification of attributes is based on the values that they can
hold as:
Single-valued and
Multi-valued attributes.
Single-valued Attributes: are attributes having only one possible value
at any time.
 Example: “Name” and “Gender” of the “EMPLOYEES” entity set.
Multi-valued Attributes: are attributes that are having possibly more
than one value.
 Example: “PERSON_OF_DEGREE” .

Cont..
Attributes can also be categorized Stored and Derived attributes.
Derived Attributes: are attributes that can be calculated from the

related stored attributes, entities or general states.
Stored Attributes: are attributes that can not be calculated in any

way from the stored attributes.
 Example: “Birth Date” of the “EMPLOYEES” entity set is a stored
attribute, where as “Age” is a derived attribute that can be calculated

from the “Birth Date” and “Current Date”.

Relationship
A Relationship represents an association between two or more entities.
An example of a relationship would be:
 “EMPLOYEES” Assigned “TEAMS”
 “CUSTOMERS” Owns “PROJECTS”
 “TEAMS” works on “PROJECTS”

Relationships are classified in terms of degree, connectivity,
cardinality, and existence.
Degree: of a relationship is the number of entities associated with
the relationship. The multi-way relationship is the general form for
degree n. Special cases are the binary, and ternary, where the degree
is 2, and 3, respectively
Cont..
Connectivity: The connectivity of a relationship describes the
mapping of associated entity instances in the relationship. The values
of connectivity are “one” or “many”.
Cardinality: The cardinality of a relationship is the actual number

of related occurrences for each of the two entities. The basic types of
connectivity for relations are: one-to-one, one-to-many,many-to-one
and many-to-Many.

Cont..
Existence: The existence of a entity in a relationship is defined as
either mandatory or optional.

Summery

Types of keys
Keys – are attributes or set of attributes that can be used to uniquely
identify an entity within the entity set.
Why we need a Key?
Keys help you to identify any row of data in a table.
In a real-world application, a table could contain thousands of

records.
Allows you to establish a relationship between and identify the

relation between tables.
Help you to enforce identity and integrity in the relationship.

Cont..
A super key (super set) is a group of single or multiple keys which

identifies rows in a table. A Super key may have additional attributes
that are not needed for unique identification.
In the above-given example, EmpSSN and “EmpNum +Empname” are
superkeys.

Cont..
Primary Key: A column or group of columns in a table which

helps us to uniquely identifies every row in that table is called a
primary key. The same value can't appear more than once in the table.
Rules for defining Primary key:
Two rows can't have the same primary key value
It must for every row to have a primary key value.
The primary key field cannot be null.
The value in a primary key column can never be modified or

updated if any foreign key refers to that primary key.

Cont..
Alternate key: All the keys which are not primary key are called an
alternate key. It is a candidate key which is currently not the primary
key. However, A table may have single or multiple choices for the
primary key.
 Example: In this table. StudID, Roll No, Email are qualified to become
a primary key. But since StudID is the primary key, Roll No, Email
becomes the alternative key.

Cont..
Candidate Key: A super key with no repeated attribute is called
candidate key.
The Primary key should be selected from the candidate keys. Every
table must have at least a single candidate key.
Properties of Candidate key:
It must contain unique values
Candidate key may have multiple attributes
Must not contain null values
Uniquely identify each record in a table

Cont..
Example: In the given table below Stud ID, Roll No, and email are
candidate keys which help us to uniquely identify the student record in
the table.

Cont..
Foreign Key A foreign key is a column which is added to create a
relationship with another table.
Foreign keys help us to maintain data integrity and also allows

navigation between two different instances of an entity.
This concept is also known as Referential Integrity.

Cont..
Composite key: A key which has multiple attributes to uniquely
identify rows in a table is called a composite key.
the composite key may or maybe not a part of the foreign key.

Constraints
Constraints: The whole purpose of constraints is to maintain

the data integrity during an update/delete/insert into a table.
Types of constraints
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
DEFAULT
CHECK
Key Constraints – PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY
Mapping constraints
Domain constraints
Cont..
NOT NULL: constraint makes sure that a column does not hold NULL
value. When we don’t provide value for a particular column while
inserting a record into a table, it takes NULL value by default.
UNIQUE: Constraint enforces a column or set of columns to have

unique values.
DEFAULT: constraint provides a default value to a column when there

is no value provided while inserting a record into a table.

Cont..
CHECK: is used for specifying range of values for a particular
column of a table.
Key constraints:
Eg: CREATE TABLE STUDENT( ROLL_NO INT NOT NULL

CHECK(ROLL_NO >1000) , STU_NAME VARCHAR (35) NOT
NULL UNIQUE, STU_AGE INT NOT NULL EXAM_FEE
INT DEFAULT 10000, STU_ADDRESS VARCHAR (35) ,
PRIMARY KEY (ROLL_NO) );

Mapping Constraints
Mapping Cardinality:
One to One: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with at

most one entity of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can be
associated with at most one entity of entity-set A.
One to Many: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with any

number of entities of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can
be associated with at most one entity of entity-set A.
Many to One: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with at

most one entity of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can be
associated with any number of entities of entity-set A.
Cont..
Many to Many: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with any
number of entities of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can be
associated with any number of entities of entity-set A.
Domain constraints: Each table has certain set of columns and each
column allows a same type of data, based on its data type. The column
does not accept values of any other data type.
Domain Constraint = data type + Constraints (NOT NULL /
UNIQUE / PRIMARY KEY / FOREIGN KEY / CHECK /
DEFAULT)

Database Design Guidelines
What are the steps in designing a database.
Determine the purpose of your database.
Find and organize the required information.
Divide the information into tables.
Turn information items into columns.
Specify primary keys.
Set up the table relationships.
Refine your design.
Apply the normalization rules

Chapter three
Relational database design:
Relational database design (RDD) use tables to store information.
The standard fields and records are represented as columns (fields/
attributes) and rows (records/ tuple) in a table.
The design of a relational database is composed of four stages,

where the data are modeled into a set of related tables. The stages
are:
Define relations/attributes
Define primary keys
Define relationships
Normalization

Functional dependency in DBMS
The attributes of a table is said to be dependent on each other when an
attribute of a table uniquely identifies another attribute of the same
table.
For example: Suppose we have a student table with attributes:

Stu_Id, Stu_Name, Stu_Age.
Here Stu_Id attribute uniquely identifies the Stu_Name attribute of

student table because if we know the student id we can tell the
student name associated with it.
This is known as functional dependency and can be written as

Stu_Id->Stu_Name or in words we can say Stu_Name is
functionally dependent on Stu_Id.
Cont..
Normalization: is the process of minimizing redundancy from a
relation or set of relations.
 It ensures optimum structure .
 It ensures data atomic.
 It eliminates data inconsistencies and anomalies.
 It improves data integrity.
Anomalies in DBMS: There are three types of anomalies that occur

when the database is not normalized. These are – Insertion, update and
deletion anomaly.

Cont..
Example: Suppose a library management system database store details
of a table and it has six attributes:
The above table is not normalized. We will see the problems that we
face when a table is not normalized.

Cont..
Update anomaly: In the above table we have two rows that have the
same value gae for a table, If we want to update the age of mulu then
we have to update only one rows.
Therefore the data will become inconsistent.

Cont..
Insert anomaly: if we want to add five new records in to a database ,
then we would not be able to insert the data into the table if Roll_No
field doesn’t allow nulls.
Delete anomaly: Suppose, if at a point of time the manager closes the

Book_No B10 then deleting the rows that are having Book_No as
B10 would also delete the information of student Alex since he is
assigned only to the table .
To overcome these anomalies we need to normalize the data

Cont..
First Normal Form: If a relation is in 1NF:
It should not contain multi-valued attribute.
every attribute should be singled valued attribute
It should be atomic .

Cont..
Second normal form (2NF): A table is said to be in 2NF if the
following conditions hold:
Table is in 1NF (First normal form)
No non-prime attribute is dependent on the proper subset of any

candidate key of table.
No partial dependency exist.
An attribute that is not part of any candidate key is known as non-

prime attribute.

Cont..
Conversion to 2NF

Cont..
Third Normal form (3NF): A table is in 3NF for each functional
dependency X-> Y at least one of the following conditions hold:
Table must be in 2NF
Transitive functional dependency of non-prime attribute on any
super key should be removed.
In other words 3NF can be explained like this:
X is a super key of table
Y is a prime attribute of table
An attribute that is a part of one of the candidate keys is known as
prime attribute.

Cont..

Cont..
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): is a stronger generalization of
third normal form.
A table is in Boyce-Codd Normal form if and only if at least one of

the following conditions are met for each functional dependency
A → B:
It should no non-trivial dependency(A trivial functional dependency

means that all columns of B are contained in the columns of A)
A is a super key
A relation is in BCNF if every determinant is a candidate key

Cont..

Individual Assignment One (5%)
1. Explain functionality of database system.
2. What is participation in DBS? explain briefly.
3. What is multiplicity in DBS? explain briefly
4. What are the basic difference between multiplicity and participation ?
5. What is ODL ? Explain with neat diagram and compare with E/R.
6. What is anomalies? Explain briefly with examples
Submission date 28/02/2012

Chapter four
04/15/2021 Database System

Relational algebra
Relational Algebra is a procedural query language that consists of a
set of operations that take one or two relations as input and produce a
new relation as a result. The algebra operations enable a user to
retrieve specific request on a relational model
The sequence of the relational algebra that produces new relation

forms a relational algebra expression
The relational algebra is very important for several reasons:
It provides a formal foundation for relational model operation.
It is used as basis for implementing optimizing queries in RDBMS.
It incorporated in to the SQL for RDBMS.

Cont..
Fundamental Operations of Relational Algebra : can be grouped into
two based on the number of relation operands of the operator. These
are:
Unary Operators .
Selection (σ)
Projection (Π)
Rename(ρ)

Cont..
Binary Operators .
Product (Cartesian Product) (Χ)
Union (U )
Intersection (˄)
Difference ( – )
The binary operators listed above are also known as set operators.

Cont..
Unary Operations:
Select Operation : selects a subset of tuple from a relation instance

that satisfies a selection condition.
Is picking certain rows (tuple) from a relation(R).
It is denoted by σ C(R), Where σ (sigma) is used to denote the

SELECT operator, C(=, <, >, ≠, ≤, ≥) is a Boolean expression of
the select condition, and R is the relation or relational algebra
expression.

Cont..
Example - From the “EMPLOYEES” relation to extract Senior

Mangers or those salary is greater than 30,000 then the selection
operation can be written as:
Employees(EmpId, Name, BDate, Age, Gender, Position, Salary)
δ position=“senior Manager” ˅ salary>=30,000
OR

Cont..
Project Operation: forms a new relation by picking certain columns in

the relation.
Also called duplicate elimination. It is denoted by: Π A ( R), Where Π

(pi) represents the PROJECT operator and A is a set of attributes in
the relation R.
Example - To extract Employees Name and Position only from the

“EMPLOYEES” relation

Cont..
Rename Operation: The renaming operator can be used to explicitly

rename resulting relations of an expression with in the query do not
think rename permanently the relation .
It is denoted by: Where ρ(rho) represents the

RENAME operator and S is a name for the new relation and A1, A2,
… An are new names for the attributes in the relation R.
Can be useful in connection with more complex operations such as

union and join
Eg: find out the maximum account balance in the bank.
Πaccount.bal(δaccount.bal <a.bal>(account Χ ρa (account)))

Cont..
If no renaming is applied, the name of the attribute in the resulting

relation of select operation are the same as those in the original and in
the same order relation
For projection operation with no renaming the resulting relation has

the same attribute names as those in the projection list and in the same
order which they appear in the list.
After the renaming the name of the relation and the attributes can be
used as ordinary relation and attributes in a sequence of relational
algebra expressions:

Binary Operations
Cartesian Product Operation: also known as Cross Product or Cross
Join or Product is binary set operation that generates a new relation
from two relation in a combinatorial fashion.
It is denoted by RΧS, Where Χ represents the PRODUCT operator

and R and S are relations to be joined.
The product operation are maps each tuple in relation with every
tuple in S.

Cont..
Example - Consider the following relations R and S, then R ΧS is

given as shown to the right.

Cont..
Consider the Employees, EmpTeams and Teams relation and develop

a relational algebra expression that retrieves the name and position of
Employees that work on Project 1 as Programmers and rename the
relation as Programmers1.
Employees(EmpId, Name, BDate, Age, Gender, Position, Salary)
EmpTeams(EmpId, TeamId)
Teams(TeamId, PrjId, Name, Descr)

Cont..

Cont..
Union Operation: The union operation on R and S denoted by R U S
results a relation that includes all tuples either in R or in S or in both.
Duplicates are eliminated from the result.
Intersection Operation: The intersection operation on R and S

denoted by R ˄ S results a relation that includes all tuples in both R
and S
Set Difference Operation: The result of the set difference operation on

R and S denoted by R−S is the set of elements in R but not in S.

Cont..
For the set operations (Union, Intersection, product, Set difference)

the two relational operands R and S must have same type of tuples,
this condition is known as Union Compatibility .
Two relations R(A1, A2, … An) and S(B1, B2, … Bn) are said to be
union compatible if
They have same degree n, and
Domain(Ai) = Domain(Bi) for all i = 1, 2, … n

Cont..
Example - Consider the following relations R and S, then R US and

R – S are given as shown to the right.
Find name and position of Employees that work on both Projects 1

and 2 as Programmers. It is Similar to the previous example.

Additional Operations
Natural Join Operation: A frequent type of join connects two relations
by:
Equating attributes of the same name, and
Projecting out one copy of each pair of equated attributes.
Such a join is known as natural join and it is denoted by:

where represents the NATURAL JOIN operator and R and S are
relations to be joined

Cont..
Consider the following relations R and S, then R S is given as

shown to the right

Cont..
The pervious example that retrieves the name and position of

Employees that work on Project 1 as Programmers from the
modified relations below can be simplified as:
Employees(EmpId, FullName, BDate, Age, Gender, Position,

Salary)
EmpTeams(EmpId, TeamId)
Teams(TeamId, PrjId, TName, Descr)
Write the relational expression based on the above information.

Cont..
Theta Join Operation: While the natural join enforces a join condition
by equating similar attributes in the relations to be joined; a theta join
joins relations to an arbitrary condition C.
The notation for theta join is:
The result of the theta operation is constructed by:
Taking the product of R and S, and
Selecting only those tuples satisfying the condition C.

Cont..
Consider the following relations R and S, then is given as

shown to the right.

Extended Operation
The basic relational algebra operations have been extended in several
ways to enhance the expressive power of the original relational
algebra. Some of the extended operations are: -
Outer Join
Extended Projection
Duplicate Elimination
Aggregation and Grouping

Cont..
Outer Join Operation: The natural join operation results a tuple
when there is a match to the common attributes of the tuples in the
relations R and S. Such joins are known as inner join operation.
However, there are cases when we want to have all the tuples from the
participating relations and form the join when there is much. In such
cases outer join operations can be used to keep all the tuples in R, or
all those in S, or all those in both relations irrespective of they having
matching tuples in their common attributes.

Cont..
The three types of outer join operators are
Left Outer Join: Keeps every tuples in the left relation R and when
there is no matching for tuples in R from tuples in S, the attributes
of S are filled (padded) with NULL values.
It is denoted by:

Cont..
Right Outer Join: Similar to the left outer join operation it keeps all
tuples in the right relation S and when there is no matching for
tuples in S from tuples in R, the attributes of R are padded with
NULL values,
It is denoted by:

Cont..
Full Outer Join: Keeps all tuples in both the left and right relations
when no matching tuples are found, padding them with NULL
values as needed
It is denoted by:

Cont..
Aggregation and Grouping Operation: Aggregation functions
(operators) such as SUM, COUNT, MIN, MAX, and AVG are
collection operators that return a single value as a result.
Aggregation operators are not relational algebra operators but they

are used by the grouping operator (γ) that groups tuples according to
their values in one or more attributes.
It is denoted by: Where L is either the list of grouping

attributes in order or list of aggregation functions applied to the
attributes of the relation R

Cont..
Example - Write a relational algebra that determines the number of

teams all the employees are working in.

Introduction to Relational Calculus
A relational calculus is a declarative and nonprocedural expression
that specifies a retrieval request, and hence there is no description of
how to evaluate the query in a relational calculus. Rather, a relational
calculus expression specifies what to be retrieved.
The relational calculus is not the same as that of differential and

integral calculus in mathematics but takes its name from a branch of
symbolic logic termed as predicate calculus.
A relational calculus is classified into two as
Tuple Relational Calculus, and
Domain Relational Calculus

Cont..
The Tuple Relational Calculus : A query in a tuple relational calculus
(tuple calculus) is expressed as: { t/p(t) } Where t. is a tuple variable
and p(t) a predicate (condition) that is to be true for the tuple t.
P(t) may have various conditions logically combined with OR (∨),

AND (∧), NOT(¬). It also uses quantifiers:
∃ t ∈ r (Q(t)) = ”there exists” a tuple in t in relation r such that

predicate Q(t) is true.
∀ t ∈ r (Q(t)) = Q(t) is true “for all” tuples in relation r.

Cont..
EXAMPLE: Find the loan number, branch, amount of loans of greater

than or equal to 10,000 amount
Cont..
SOLUTION
{t| t ∈ loan ∧ t[amount]>=10,000}
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater or equal to
10,000.
{t| ∃ s ∈ loan(t[loan number] = s[loan number] ∧ s[amount]>=10000)
Find the names of all customers having a loan at the “ABC” branch.
{t | ∃ s ∈ borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-name]) ∧ ∃ u ∈

depositor( t[customer-name] = u[customer-name])}
Cont..
The Domain Relational Calculus: A query in a domain relational
calculus (domain calculus) uses domain variables that take on values
from an attributes domain rather than values for an entire tuple.
It is expressed as Where tx1,x2…..xn

represent domain variables and P is the predicate as in the case of
tuple calculus.
Formulas in the predicate are build in the same ways as the tuple
calculus predicates.

Cont..
Example - Retrieve name and description of all the teams working on
project named “banking db”.
Projects(PrjId, PName, SDate, DDate, CDate)
Teams(TeamId, PrjId, TName, Descr calculus predicates

Chapter five
04/15/2021 Database System

Structured query language(SQL)
What is SQL? SQL stands for Structured Query Language
SQL became a standard of the American National Standards

Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1987
SQL is a Standard , Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there

are different versions of the SQL language. However, to be
compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the
major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT,
WHERE) in a similar manner.

Structured query language(SQL)
What Can SQL do?
Can retrieve, insert, update, delete record from a database
Can create new databases
Can create new tables in a database
Can create stored procedures in a database
Can create views in a database
Can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL Data Definition Language (DDL)
The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
CREATE TABLE - creates a new database table.
ALTER TABLE - alters (changes) a database table.
DROP TABLE - deletes a database table.
CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key).
DROP INDEX - deletes an index.

SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML)
The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is part of the SQL syntax
for executing queries to insert, retrieve, update, and delete records.
The statements are;
INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database table.
SELECT - extracts data from a database table.
UPDATE - updates data in a database table.
DELETE - deletes data from a database table.

Schema Definition in SQL
The term "schema" refers to the organization of data as a blueprint of
how the database is constructed (divided into database tables in the
case of relational databases). Schemas are like folders within
a database but database is a container.
SQL uses the following terms for the corresponding terms in

relational model
Table – Relation
Column – Attribute
Row – Tuple

Schema Creation and Modification
L in the SQL statement is used to
The CREATE SCHEMA command
group database objects such as tables, views and permissions.
The syntax for the command is: CREATE SCHEMA <schema_name>

AUTHORIZATION <owner>
<schema_name> is the name of the schema
<owner> identifies the user who is the owner of the schema.

Example: - CREATE SCHEMA schema AUTHORIZATION
user

Cont..
CREATE SCHEMA command groups database objects the CREATE
DATABASE command in the SQL statement is used to create a new
database and the corresponding files for storing the database.
The syntax for the command is:

 CREATE DATABASE <database_name>
Example: - CREATE DATABASE DMU

Table Creation and Modification
The CREATE TABLE command in the SQL statement is used to
specify a new relation in a database by giving it a name and listing its
attributes.
The syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_name1 data_type

column_constraint, column_name2 data_type column_constraint……
column_nameN data_type column_constraint)

Cont..
Example: For the PROJECTS and TEAMS relations the
corresponding tables can be defined as: -
CREATE TABLE Projects ( PrjId INT NOT NULL PRIMARY

KEY, Name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL, SDate DATE NOT
NULL, DDate DATE NULL, CDate DATE NULL)
CREATE TABLE Teams ( PrjId INT NOT NULL FOREIGN KEY

REFERENCES Projects(PrjId), Name VARCHAR(30) NOT
NULL, Description VARCHAR(100) NULL, PRIMARY KEY
(PrjId, Name) ), …

Cont..
The primary key constraint in a relation is enforced by using the key
word PRIMARY KEY following the key attribute or incase of
multiple attributes it can be specified on a separate line.
The referential integrity constraint in a relational database is

implemented by the use of a foreign key. If the referential integrity
enforced using a FOREIGN KEY is violated the default SQL
statement forces the rejection of the violating tuple. However, by the
use of the optional referential trigged actions the designer can attach
clauses to the foreign key constraint such as:

Cont..
Cascading referential integrity constraints are foreign key constraints
that tell SQL Server to perform certain actions when a primary key
field in a primary key-foreign key relationship is updated or deleted
Example: create table parent ( pid int not null primary key (id),Pname
char(20) not null )
create table child ( cid int not null primary key, pid int foreign key
references parent(pid) on delete cascade on update cascade

Cont..
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify
columns in an existing table.
The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various
constraints on an existing table.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name drop column column_name;
To change the data type of a column in a table, syntax:
LTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name
datatype;
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
 ALTER TABLE OrdersADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFEREN
CES Persons(PersonID);

Index creation and modification
Indexes are the heart of fast data access. Data access can be fast
without indexes, but only if the table is small.
If the table contains thousands or millions of rows, data access has to

be done through indexes. Indices in a book, helps to find information
about a specific subject without having to read the entire book.
The same applies to a database index; it helps to find information

about a specific row or rows without having to search through the
entire table..

Cont..
An index for a table is managed by an external table which consists of
the search key (index attribute) and a pointer to the location of the
data as columns.
Creating indexes is a straight forward process when done with the

CREATE INDEX statements.
The basic CREATE INDEX statement is:

CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
 CREATE INDEX idx_lastname ON Persons (LastName);

Simple Query Constructs and Syntax
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

 SELECT Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want
to select data from.
If you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the
following syntax: Select * from table_Name

Cont..
SELECT <column_list> FROM <table_list> WHERE <condition>
<column_list> is the list of column names whose values are retrieved

by the query.
<table_list> is the list of table names required in the process.
<condition> is Boolean expression (conditional expression) that

determines the rows to be selected in the query.
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE

keyword could not be used with aggregate functions.
Eg: SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_nameWHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)HAVING condition
Cont..
The WHERE clause it is a search condition used to filter records.
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a
specified condition.
Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name

WHERE condition;
The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statement, it is

also used in UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc.
 Syntax: UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Cont..
In SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a
temporary name.
Aliases are often used to make column names more readable and to
avoid ambiguity .
An alias only exists for the duration of the query.

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;
 Example: SELECT CustomerID AS ID,
CustomerName AS Customer
FROM Customers;
Cont..
The SELECT DISTINCT: statement is used to return only distinct
(different) values.
Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and

sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct) values.
To remove duplicates and have a set of rows as a result one can the
DISTINCT key word on the SELECT clause as follows
SELECT DISTINCT <column_list> FROM <table_list>

WHERE <condition>

Cont..
Example: A query to retrieve employees name, the projects they are
participating and due date of the project.
SELECT DISTINCT e.Name, p.Name, p.DDate FROM Employees

AS e, EmpTeams AS et, Teams AS t, Projects AS p WHERE
e.EmpId=et.EmpId AND et.TeamId=t.TeamId AND p.PrjId=t.PrjId
If the SELECT is not DISTINCT the resulting table (view) will

include identical set of rows for an employee participating in different
teams for same project.

Cont..
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a
specified pattern in a column.
There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE
operator:
% The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters
_ The underscore represents a single character

Cont..
Example: A query to retrieve employees with a name starting by the
letter ‘A’.
SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Name=’A%’
SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have
"r" in the second position:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';
SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that starts
with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%';

Nested Sub queries and Complex Queries
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE statement discussed so far is the
simplest SQL statement for querying a database. SQL SELECT
statements can be combined together to form Sub queries.
Sub queries in a SQL statement are complete form of SELECT-

FROM-WHERE statements that are contained in one query.
They can be used in different ways:
Sub queries in the WHERE clause to form nested queries, Sub

queries in set operations such as UNION, EXCEPT, …, and
Sub queries in the FROM clause as constant tables.

Cont..
SQL SELECT statements can be contained in the WHERE clause of
another SQL statement to form Nested queries. Sub queries in a
nested SQL statement can produce scalar value (constant) or table.
Considering the following relations,
Employees(EmpId, Name, BDate, SubCity, Kebele, Phone, Salary)
Teams(TeamId, PrjId, Name, Descr) - EmpTeams(EmpId, TeamId)
Projects(PrjId, Name, SDate, DDate, CDate, CustId)
Customers(CustId, Name, Address)

Cont..
Example: write a query to retrieve all the projects that are owned by
the customer ‘XYZ’. (Assume name of a customer is unique)
SELECT Name, SDate, DDate, CDate FROM Projects WHERE

CustId = (SELECT CustId FROM Customers WHERE
Name=’XYZ’)

Cont..
TEST Operators in sub query:
The ANY and ALL operators are used with a WHERE or HAVING
clause.
The ANY operator returns true if any of the sub query values meet
the condition.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
operator ANY(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHER
E condition);
Eg: SELECT ProductName FROM Products
WHERE ProductID= ANY (SELECT ProductID FROM
OrderDetails WHERE Quantity = 10);
Cont..
The ALL operator returns true if all of the sub query values meet
the condition.
Syntax: SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ALL
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=,

>, >=, <, or <=)
Eg: SELECT ProductName FROM Products

WHERE ProductID= ALL (SELECT ProductID FROM
OrderDetails WHERE Quantity > 99);
Cont..
The EXISTS operator: is used to test for the existence of any record in
a sub query.
The EXISTS operator returns true if the sub query returns one or more
records.
EXISTS Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
The BETWEEN operator: selects values within a given range. The
values can be numbers, text, or dates. It is inclusive: begin and end
values are included.
Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

Cont..
Example: Write a query to retrieve customers that at least own project
SELECT Name, Address FROM Customers AS c WHERE EXISTS

(SELECT * FROM Projects AS p WHERE c.CustId=p.CustId)
SELECT SupplierName FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products
WHERE Products.SupplierID = Suppliers.supplierID AND Price
< 20);

Cont..
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them.
types of join:-
The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching

values in both tables.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Cont..
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table
(table1), and the matched records from the right table (table2). The
result is NULL from the right side, if there is no match.
Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

left outer JOIN table2

Cont..
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table
(table2), and the matched records from the left table (table1). The
result is NULL from the left side, when there is no match.

right outer JOIN table2

Cont..
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a
match in left (table1) or right (table2) table records.

full outer JOIN table2

Cont..
Cross Product <left_table> CROSS JOIN <right_table> . The Cross
product forms the Cartesian product set from the participating tables.
Natural Join <left_table> NATURAL JOIN <right_table> The natural

join forms a join of rows with identical values in the common
attributes of the participating tables.
Theta Join <left_table> JOIN <right_table> ON<condition> The theta

join forms the theta join on the joining condition specified by the ON
clause.

Cont..
Example: The query that retrieves employees name and phone that are
participating on projects that are owned by the customer ‘XYZ’ can be
modified as follows using joined tables:
SELECT Name, Phone FROM Employees WHERE EmpId IN (SELECT

EmpId FROM EmpTeams NATURAL JOIN Teams WHERE PrjId IN
(SELECT PrjId FROM Projects AS p JOIN Customers AS c ON
p.CustId=c.CustId WHERE c.Name=’XYZ’))

Cont..
Example: A query to retrieve all the projects and the teams they
consist if any:
SELECT p.Name, p.SDATE, p.DDate, t.Name, t.Descr FROM

Projects AS p LEFT OUTER JOIN Teams AS t ON p.PrjId=t.PrjId
The query returns all the projects, and if the projects are having teams
the teams will be joined with the teams as well. Projects having more
than one team will be joined with each teams in the resulting table.

Cont..
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or
descending order. It sorts the records in ascending order by default. To
sort the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.
The default order sequence is ASC that can be omitted.
Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_name

ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;
Eg1: SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country,

Countryname DESC;
Eg2: SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;
Cont..
The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values
into summary rows, like "find the number of customers in each
country". Is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX,
MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.
Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name

WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s) ORDER BY column_name(s);
Eg: SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country FROM Customers

GROUP BY Country ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;

Aggregate Function in SQL
The COUNT() function: returns the number of rows that matches a
specified criteria.
Syntax: SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name

WHERE condition;
The AVG() function: returns the average value of a numeric column.
Syntax: SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

WHERE condition;
The SUM() function: returns the total sum of a numeric column.

Syntax: SELECT SUM(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Cont..
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
Syntax: SELECT MAX(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The MIN() function: returns the smallest value of the selected

column.
Syntax: SELECT MIN(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Eg1: SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products;
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice FROM Products;

views
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL
statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in
a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view
and present the data as if the data were coming from one single table.
Syntax: CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name WHERE condition;

views
1. Discuss types of schema i.e. conceptual schema, logical schema, and
physical schema
2. Discuss relational calculus with example.
Submitted date 03/04/2012

views
Chapter six
Data storage and querying

Storage and File Structure
Introduction: A database system is designed to hold large size of
data that need to be physically (permanently) on the storage medium.
The storage medium in a computer can be categorized as:
Primary Storage: Storage media that have direct access to the CPU:
the main memory and the cache. Cache is the lowest level in the
memory hierarchy that is built inside the microprocessor chip.
Typically the response time is in nanoseconds.
The main memory is the next level in the hierarchy that provides the
main working environment for the CPU to keep the programs and
data.
Storage and File Structure
Secondary storage: Storage media for permanent storage such as
magnetic disk and optical disk. Larger in capacity but significantly
slower than the primary storages. Typical response time is in
milliseconds. The secondary storage is used as a virtual memory, disk
storage, and file system.
Tertiary Storage: Storage media that are used for archive and backup
storage data, such as magnetic tape. Typical response time is few
seconds or even in minutes. Virtual memory is storage on the disk that
can is often addressed by 32 bit address space, hence 232~4GB of
data can be managed.

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Chapter One

Data: is a collection of raw facts.

Information System is a system that:

Receives data and instruction

Processes the data as per the instruction

Stores data/information for future use

04/15/2021 Database System 2

Limitations Traditional Database :

Is a collection of related data in an organized way.

Is logically related data where these logically related data

Also contains a description of the data which called as

E.g. book database

04/15/2021 Database System 4

Databases and database technology are having a major impact on the

Designed once and used simultaneously by many users.

04/15/2021 Database System 5

The advantages of a database approach over the traditional and paper-

Accuracy: timely, accurate and up-to-date information is available

04/15/2021 Database System 6

Integrity can be maintained: The problem of integrity is the problem

Security restrictions can be applied: Different rules can be

04/15/2021 Database System 7

Limitations and risk of Database

Complexity in designing and managing data

High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system

Complex backup and recovery services from the users perspective

Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency

High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central

04/15/2021 Database System 8

Retrieving data from existing file

Adding new data to existing file

Adding new data to empty file

Receives data and instruction

Modifying data to existing file

Deleting data from existing file

Searching for target information

A database system involves four major components:

04/15/2021 Database System 10

Database Administrator (DBA)

04/15/2021 Database System 11

Example: Ms Access, SQL Server, My SQL, Oracle etc.

Is general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of

Manipulating databases for various applications

Defining a database: involves specifying the data types,

Constructing the database: is the process of storing the data

itself on some storage medium that is controlled by the

Manipulating a database: to retrieve specific data, updating

the database to reflect changes in the mini world, and

generating reports from the data.

Sharing: allows multiple users to access data.

04/15/2021 Database System 13

A DBMS is software package used to design, manage, and

It facilities to define the database, manipulate the content of the

database and control the database.

database administrator to discharge their responsibility in

designing, using and managing the database.

It provides the following facilities:

04/15/2021 Database System 14

Data Definition Language (DDL):

required by the organization.

Used to setup a database to create, drop, rename

and alter table with the facility of handling

Data Manipulation Language (DML):