Lecture 2

1.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 1-3 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

In this section, we define two widely used terms: protocols

and standards. First, we define protocol, which is
synonymous with rule. Then we discuss standards, which
are agreed-upon rules.

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 Protocols

 Set of rules and regulations

 A protocol defines what is communicated,
how it is communicated and when it is
communicated.

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 Protocols (Cont…)
 Key elements of protocol:
 Syntax (structure and format of data,
meaning order in which they are presented)
 E.g. a simple protocol might expect first eight
bit of data to be the address of the sender,
next eight bits address of the receiver and
rest is the message.

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 Protocols (Cont…)
 Semantics (meaning of each section of bits,
How a particular pattern is interpreted, and
what action is to be taken based on
interpretation)
 E.g does the address defines the route to be taken
or the final destintion of the message?
 Timing (when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent)

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 Standard
 Guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies to ensure
interconnectivity.
 When there are no standards, problems
arise.
 E.g. Automobiles are an example of non
standardized products.

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 Standard (Cont…)
 Two types:
 De facto (by fact)
 Not approved by an organized body but have been
adopted as standard through widespread use.
 De jure (by law)
 Have been legislated by an officially recognized
body.

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 Standards Organizations
 International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union –
Telecommunication Standards (ITU-T)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

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 Physical Structure
 Network attributes
 Type of connection
 The way two or more communication devices
attach to a link.
 A link is a physical communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to other.
 Physical topology

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 Type of Connections
 Point to Point
 Dedicated link between 2 devices.
 Entire capacity of the channel is reserved for
transmission between these two devices.
 E.g.
 Wire or cable
 Microwave or satellite links
 Infrared remote control of television.

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 Type of Connections (cont…)
 Multipoint
 More than two specific devices share a single
link.
 Capacity of the channel is shared either
spatially or temporally.
 Spatially: devices can use the link
simultaneously.
 Time shared (temporally) users must take
turns.

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 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

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 Physical Topology
 Topology is the way a network is laid out.
 Either physically or logically.
 Two or more devices connect to a link.
 Two or more links form a topology.
 “The topology is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices to each other.”

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 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

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 Mesh
 Every device has a dedicated point to
point link to every other device.
 Dedicated means that the link carries
traffic only between the two devices it
connects.
 It has a n(n-1)/2 chnnels to link n devices.
 Every device must have n-1 (I/O) ports.

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 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

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 Mesh
 Advantages:
 Eliminating the traffic load because each
connection is dedicated.
 Robust: if one link becomes unstable, it does
not effect the entire system.
 Privacy or security: message travel on a
dedicated link so intended receipt sees it.
 Fault identification and fault isolation is easy.

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 Mesh
 Disadvantages
 Amount of cables and number of (I/O) ports
is huge.
 Installation and reconfiguration is difficult.

 Sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the

space.
 Hardware (i/o ports and cables) can be

expensive.
Backbone connecting the main computers of
hybrid n/w that can include several other
topologies.
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 Mesh
 Example
 The lucky ducky corporation has a fully
connected mesh network consisting of
eight devices. Calculate the total number
of cable links needed and the number of
ports for each device.

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 Mesh
 Solution
 The formula for the number of links for a fully
connected mesh is n(n-1)/2, where n is the
number of devices.
 No. of links= n(n-1)/2 = 28
 No. of ports per device = n-1 = 7

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 Star Topology
 Each device has a dedicated point to point
link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to each
other.
 No direct traffic between devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange.

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 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

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 Star
 Advantages
 Less expensive
 One link and one I/O port needed by a device
 Easy to install and reconfigure
 Robustness
 If one link fails only that link is affected.
 Easy fault identification and easy fault
isolation.

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 Star
 Disadvantages
 Less cable required than mesh but more
cabling is required than in some other
topologies (bus, tree, ring).
 If hub gets corrupted, whole network is
affected.

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 Bus Topology
 Previous topologies we discussed were all
point to point configuration.
 Bus Topology is multipoint.
 One long cable acts a as a backbone to
link all the devices in the network.
 A tap is a connector that either splices
into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of the cable to create a contact
with the metallic core.
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 Bus Topology
 Signal travels along the backbone, some
of its energy is transformed into heat.
 So it becomes weaker and weaker the
farther it has to travel.
 That is why there is a limit on the number
of taps a bus can support and the distance
between the taps.

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 Bus Topology
 Advantages:
 Ease of installation and Less cabling:
 Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, then connected to the nodes by
drop lines of various lengths. (Compare cabling
with star topology).

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 Bus Topology
 Disadvantages:
 Difficult reconfiguration
 Difficult to add new devices
 Fault isolation
 Difficult to isolate the faulty spot and keep on
working.
 Fault stops all transmission
 Noise creation
 Damaged area reflects back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both direction

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 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

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 Ring Topology
 Each device has a dedicated point to point
connection only with the two devices on
either side of it.
 A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device until it
reaches its destination.
 Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater.

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 Ring Topology
 What is a repeater?
 When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them
along.

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 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

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 Ring Topology
 Advantages:
 Easy to install
 Each device is linked to its immediate
neighbors (Either physically or logically)
 To add or delete a device requires moving
only two connections.
 Fault Isolation Simplified

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 Ring Topology
 Disadvantages:
 Break in ring
 Can disable the entire network because traffic
is unidirectional.
 Solution
 By using a dual ring or a switch
 n devices need n cable links.

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 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

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