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Architectural Acoustic
Architectural acoustics (also known as room
acoustics and building acoustics) is the science and
engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and
is a branch of acoustical engineering.
The first application of modern scientific methods to

architectural acoustics was carried out by Wallace Sabine in
the Fogg Museum lecture room who then applied his new
found knowledge to the design of Symphony Hall, Boston.
Architectural acoustics can be about achieving good speech

intelligibility in a theatre, restaurant or railway station,
enhancing the quality of music in a concert hall or recording
Symphony Hall, Birmingham, an
studio, or suppressing noise to make offices and homes more example of the application of
productive and pleasant places to work and live in. architectural acoustics.
Architectural acoustic design is usually done by acoustic
consultants.
Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

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•The branch of science which deals with planning of a building to provide
the best quality audible sound to audience is termed as architectural
acoustics or acoustics of building.
•Acoustics is the science of sound. It relates to recorded music, to speech

and hearing, to the behaviour of sound in concert halls and buildings, and
to noise in our environment. It is the technology of designing spaces and
systems that meet our auditory needs.
•Architectural acoustics deals with sound in and around buildings of all

kinds. Good acoustical design ensures the efficient distribution of desirable
sounds as well as the exclusion of undesirable sound.

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•All acoustical situations consist of three parts:
(1) source, (2) Path, and (3) Receiver.

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•Acoustical Oceanography (AO)
•Animal Bioacoustics (AB)
•Architectural Acoustics (AA)
•Biomedical
Ultrasound/Bioresponse to
Vibration (BB)
•Engineering Acoustics (EA)
•Musical Acoustics (MU)
•Noise (NS)
•Physical Acoustics (PA)
•Psychological and Physiological
Acoustics (PP)
•Signal Processing in Acoustics
(SP)
•Speech Communication (SC)
•Structural Acoustics and Vibration
(SA)
•Underwater Acoustics (UW)

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Need to Study Acoustics
When designing a building’s environment, Architect must deal primarily
with human senses of 1. Sight 2. Touch 3. Hearing
Knowledge of the concepts of architectural acoustics, the study of Julian Treasure:

everything which concerns hearing in or around buildings, will enable the Why architects
designer to properly integrate the requirements of the sound control with need to use their
the requirements of other building functions. Every space that man ears
occupies possesses an acoustical environment.
https://www.youtube.com
Because of poor acoustics, students in classrooms miss 50 percent of what /watch?v=y5nbWUOc9tY
their teachers say and patients in hospitals have trouble sleeping because
they continually feel stressed.
The goal of architectural acoustic is to make the environment best serve

the functions intended, such as work, relaxation or sleep. All architects
can benefit from a study of architectural acoustics for several important
reasons.

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History... Creek. aκουειν= ”to hear”
•6th centuryBC
Pythagoras investigates the relation between the length and pitch of strings
•325 BC
Aristotle writes about the production and reception of sound and echoes
•27 AD
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio: De Architectura, first instructions on the acoustic design of
theaters
•800s 
Islamic culture produces new knowledge on sound-related phenomena(e.g. Hearing
and speech production)
•1500s
The effects of Renaissance cathedrals on music

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History...
•Mid1600s
Sound reflection and echoes are explained as analog to the reflection of light, R.
Boyle ja R. Hooke deduce that sound needs a medium in order to propagate, G.
Galilei investigates the vibration of strings
•1670`s
First purpose-built concert hall is finished in London
•1700s
Commercialisation of music and theatre industry createsnew social and acoustical
framework
•1816
P. S. Laplace discovers the equation for calculating the speed of sound (Newton
attempted this before but did not get the right result)

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History...
•Beginning of 1800s
Practical research on the behaviour of sound in enclosed spaces (background: growing need for
auditoria and development of orchestral music). C. Bullfinch, R. Mills and J. S. Russell develop
methods for improving speech intelligibility in rooms.
•1850
Joseph Henry discovers the Precedence effect and evaluates that the shape of the room doesnot explain
alone the way it sound, but materials have to be considered also
•1860s
Hermann von Helmholtz investigates speech production, sense of hearing and sound disturbance
•1876
A. G. Bell invents the microphone (however, condensate or microphone is not invented until1916)
•1877
Lord Rayleigh: The Theory of Sound, the mathematical principles of sound and vibration

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History...
1930s
First sound level meter(P. Sabine)
•1930s
Suggestions for sound insulation regulations in several countries, measurement of and
methods to decrease traffic noise in large cities
acoustics becomes a tool for humans to control the environment
•1943
The Finnish Ääniteknillinen yhditys (now Akustinen Seura / Acoustical Society of
Finland) is established
the field of acoustical expertise in Finland expands, teaching acoustics begins

gradually in the 1950s and 1960s

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2. Basic theory of Sound

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2.1 Generation of Sound
In physics, sound is a vibration that typically propagates as an audible wave of pressure, through

a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves and

their perception by the brain. Humans can only hear sound waves as distinct pitches when
the frequency lies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above 20 kHz is ultrasound and is
not perceptible by humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound. Different
animal species have varying hearing ranges.
The sensation of sound is a result of vibrations in the air caused by pressure fluctuations, which
can be measured with a sound level meter. Vibrations are more commonly associated with
mechanical systems, but air also has mass and stiffness, and as sound travels in the air it is
locally compressed and expanded. The simplest type of vibration is a pure tone, which is a one-
dimensional sinusoidal vibration with only one frequency component. These sinusoidal
vibrations are called simple harmonic vibrations.
Measuring sound is done with a sound level meter and can be presented by both sound pressure,
measured in Pascal (Pa), and sound intensity, measured in Watt/m2.

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2.2 Propagation of Sound
Sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids
as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids.
Sound is propagated in air, much like blowing up a large balloon,

which expands equally in all directions. (Fig 1)
For sound to be generated and heard it must have a source, a

medium through which to pass and a receiver.
For purposes of this discussion, we will assume that we are talking

about normal speech communications. The source is the speaker’s
voice, the medium through which it is transmitted is air and the
receiver is the listener’s ear.
As sound is generated by the speaker’s speech, the speaker’s voice

(Fig 1)
acts like a diaphragm which causes the molecules in the air to
pulsate back and forth while moving in all directions, at a speed of
1130 ft per second (770 mph).

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A single segment of a sound wave may be characterized as pressure compressions
and rarefactions.

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The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things:
1. A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by
temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium.
2. Motion of the medium itself. If the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the
absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound
moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the wind if the sound
and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the
speed of the sound wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind.
3. The viscosity of the medium. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated. For
many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible.
When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, it may
be refracted (either dispersed or focused).
The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter:
gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium.
Sound cannot travel through a vaccum

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CASSIFICATION OF SOUND :
On the basis of frequency sound waves are classified

into 3 types.
- INFRA SOUND [f<20Hz]

- AUDIBLE SOUND [ 20Hz < f < 20kHz]
- ULTRA SOUND [ f > 20kHz]
CLASSIFICATION OF AUDIBLE SOUND:
1) MUSICAL SOUND
2) NOISE
Musical Noise
•The Sound which produces •The sound that produces a jarring effect
pleasing effect on the ear is on the ear and unpleasant to hear is called
called Musical Sound. noise.
•Sounds Of Sitar, Violin, Flute •Sound Of Road

Traffic, Crackers, Aeroplane

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PROPERTIES OF MUSICAL SOUND
•Regular in Shape.
•Have definite Periodicity.
•They do not undergo a sudden change in
amplitude.
Properties Of Noise
• Irregular in Shape.
• Do not have Definite Periodicity.
• They Undergo a Sudden Change In Amplitude.

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2.3 Transmission of Sound
Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids
as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. It requires a
medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be
transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
Longitudinal sound waves are waves of

alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure,
causing local regions of compression and rarefaction,
while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear
stress at right angle to the direction of propagation. Sound waves
may be "viewed" using parabolic mirrors and objects that produce
sound. Spherical compression
(longitudinal) waves
The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave converts back and

forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in
case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case
of transverse waves) of the matter, and the kinetic energy of the
displacement velocity of particles of the medium.

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Physical properties of sound
• Wavelength of sound – This the distance between two pressure peaks or valleys, measured in
metres (m) and represented with the Greek alphabet ‘l’ (lambda). • Period – This is the time taken
for on complete oscillation. This is measured in seconds(s) and represented with the letter ‘T’.
• Frequency – This is the number of oscillations per second. This is represented with ‘f’ and
measured in Hertz
• Velocity of sound – This is the rate at which a sound wave travels from a source through a medium
to the receiver. The unit is m/s.
• Amplitude – This is the distance between a crest (the highest point) and a valley (the lowest point)

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Sound intensity
Sound intensity level also known as acoustic intensity is defined as the power carried by
sound waves per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that area. The SI unit of intensity,
which includes sound intensity, is the watt per square meter (W/m2). One application is the
noise measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener's location as a sound energy
quantity.
Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity as sound pressure. Hearing is directly
sensitive to sound pressure which is related to sound intensity. In consumer audio
electronics, the level differences are called "intensity" differences, but sound intensity is a
specifically defined quantity and cannot be sensed by a simple microphone. The rate at
which sound energy passes through a unit area held perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of sound waves is called intensity of sound.

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Mathematical
definition
Sound intensity, denoted I, is defined

by
I = pν
Where Also,

• p is the sound pressure; I=2
• νis the particle velocity.
Where,
Both I and v are vectors, which means
that both have a direction as well as a is frequency of sound
magnitude. The direction of sound A is amplitude of the sound wave
intensity is the average direction in is velocity of sound
which energy is flowing. is density of medium in which the sound is
travelling
The average sound intensity during
time T is given by
I=

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Many sound intensity measurements are made relative to a standard threshold
of hearing intensity I0 :
The most common approach to sound intensity measurement is to use the

decibel scale:
Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity I to the threshold of hearing

intensity , so that this threshold takes the value 0 decibels (0 dB). To assess
sound loudness, as distinct from an objective intensity measurement, the
sensitivity of the ear must be factored in.

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• Sound intensity decreases at a rate
Inverse –Square Law inversely proportional to the square of
the distance from the sound source. The
relationship can be expressed as:
• I = W/4π r2
• Where I = sound intensity in

watts per square centimeter;
• W = sound power in watts;
• r = distance from the sound
source in centimeter.
• If the distance is measured in

feet, 4πr2 has to be multiplied
by 930 (because 1 square foot
equals 930 square centimeter).

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Decibel Scale
The decibel ( dB) is used to measure sound level, but it is also widely used in electronics,
signals and communication. The dB is a logarithmic way of describing a ratio. The ratio
may be power, sound pressure, voltage or intensity or several other things.
Later on we relate dB to the phon and the sone(related to loudness). But first, to get a taste

for logarithmic expressions.
For instance, suppose we have two loudspeakers, the first playing a sound with power P 1,
and another playing a louder version of the same sound with power P 2, but everything else
(how far away, frequency) kept the same
The difference in decibels between the two is defined to be
10 log (P2/P1) dB where the log is to base 10.
If the second produces twice as much power than the first, the difference in dB is
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 2 = 3 dB.

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as is shown on the graph, which plots 10 log (P2/P1) against
P2/P1. To continue the example, if the second had 10 times the
power of the first, the difference in dB would be
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB
If the second had a million times the power of the first, the
difference in dB would be
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 1,000,000 = 60 dB.
This example shows one feature of decibel scales that is useful

in discussing sound: they can describe very big ratios using
numbers of modest size. But note that the decibel describes
a ratio: so far we have not said what power either of the
speakers radiates, only the ratio of powers. (Note also the
factor 10 in the definition, which puts the 'deci' in decibel).

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Phon:
• The phon is a unit of loudness level for pure tones. Its purpose is to compensate for the effect
of frequency on the perceived loudness of tones. The phon was proposed in DIN 45631 and
ISO 532 B by S. S. Stevens.
• The phon is a non-standard noise unit that is designed to reflect perceived loudness, and is
based on psychoacoustic experiments in which volunteers were asked to adjust the decibel
level of a reference tone of 1 kHz until it was the same loudness as the signal being measured.
So for example, if a sound is 70 phons, that means it sounds as loud as a 70-dB, 1-kHz tone.
The dBA scale is now widely used instead of phons.
• By definition, the number of phon of a sound is the dB SPL of a sound at a frequency of 1 kHz
that sounds just as loud. This implies that 0 phon is the limit of perception, and inaudible
sounds have negative phon levels.
• The equal-loudness contours are a way of mapping the dB SPL of a pure tone to the perceived
loudness level (LN) in phons. These are now defined in the international standard ISO
226:2003, and the research on which this document is based concluded that earlier Fletcher–
Munson curves and Robinson–Dadson curves were in error.

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Sone:
The sone ( /ˈsoʊn/) is a unit of loudness, how loud a sound is perceived. The sone scale is linear.
Doubling the perceived loudness doubles the sone value. Proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens in
1936, it is a non-SI unit.
In acoustics, loudness is the subjective perception of sound pressure. The study of apparent
loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs methods of psychophysics.
Conversion
According to Stevens' definition, a loudness of 1 sone is equivalent to the loudness of a
signal at 40 phons, the loudness level of a 1 kHz tone at 40 dB SPL. But phons scale with
level in dB, not with loudness, so the sone and phon scales are not proportional. Rather, the
loudness in sones is, at least very nearly, a power law function of the signal intensity, with an
exponent of 0.3. With this exponent, each 10 phon increase (or 10 dB at 1 kHz) produces
almost exactly a doubling of the loudness in sones.
Phons 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Sones 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

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Weighting networks
A-weighting network: Generally, the sensitivity of human hearing is restricted to the

frequency range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. The human ear, however, is most sensitive to sound
in the 400 to 10,000 Hz frequency range. Above and below this range, the ear becomes
progressively less sensitive. To account for this feature of human hearing, sound level meters
incorporate a filtering of acoustic signals according to frequency. This filtering is devised to
correspond to the varying sensitivity of the human ear to sound over the audible frequency
range. This filtering is called A-weighting. Sound pressure level values obtained using this
weighting are referred to as A-weighted sound pressure levels and are signified by the
identifier dBA. Simply speaking, it may be defined as a frequency-response adjustment of a
sound-level meter that makes its reading conform, very roughly, to human response.
C-weighted network: The C-weighted network provides unweighted microphone sensitivity

over the frequency range of maximum human sensitivity (over 1000 Hz).

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EQUAL LOUDNESS CONTOUR
Our ears do not perceive all sounds

equally at the various frequencies or
sound intensities. (FIGURE 6) shows
an equal loudness contour chart. The
sound levels for a particular sound as
defined by the level at 1000 Hz will
find the same for any given frequency
along the curve. For example, a 20-
decibel sound at 1000 Hz would be
perceived as the same sound level of 50
decibels at 100 Hz. This indicates that
our ears are less sensitive to low-
frequency sounds than mid to high
frequencies. As will be seen later, this
sensitivity difference will feature
repeatedly in the control of noise.

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Credit: Yang Ku / Ty Finocchiaro / C&EN
Source: https://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i14/Sound-Science.html

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Perception of Sound (Loudness)
The deviation of sound above and below the atmospheric pressure levels is called Sound
Pressure. The energy expanded in the process of sound propagation is labeled intensity
(loudness) and is measured in energy units. At this point the science of sound can be a little more
complex and intimidating since placing a numerical value on sound is very difficult due to the
extraordinary sensitivity of the human ear. Our ears can detect deviations in atmospheric
pressure in the order of 1,000,000 to 1 and sound intensities of over a trillion to one.
In order to make the measurement, calculation, and perception of sound more manageable, a
compact scale has been devised incorporating the decibel (dB). A decibel is a logarithmic unit
measure of sound pressure.
(FIGURE 7) Shows sound levels of recognizable sound in decibels with a subjective evaluation
from “very faint” to “deafening”. It shows the logarithmic values of intensity of energy units and
the relative loudness as perceived by the human ear. Obviously, it is much easier to comprehend
the decibel levels.

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TYPICAL A-WEIGHTED SOUND LEVELS
(FIGURE7) THRESHOLD OF AUDIBILITY
The Relative Loudness levels are THRESHOLD OF FEELINGS DECIBELS
INTENSITY
ENERGY
RELATIVE
RE 20 uPA LOUDNESS
important insofar as they UNITS
demonstrate that a 10-decibel Jet Takeoff (200′)
120
1,000,000,00
4096
DEAFENIN 0,000
increase will be perceived as twice G
Artillery
as loud as the previous level or Elevated Train
110
100,000,000,
2048
conversely, a decrease of 50% from Subway (20′)
000
the previous higher level. It is less VERY Printing Press 100

10,000,000,0
1024
00
important to understand the LOUD
1,000,000,00
Police Whistle 90 512
physics of this relative difference as 0
much as to accept it as an acoustical Vacuum Cleaner (10′) 80 100,000,000 256
phenomenon. LOUD
Street Noise 70 10,000,000 128
Noisy Office
60 1,000,000 64
Note: (FIGURE 7) expresses the Large Store
sound pressure levels as single MODERAT Conversation 50 100,000 32
E
number levels in the A weighted Average Office
40 10,000 16
scale. The A weighted scale uses the Private office
equal loudness contours to provide FAINT Quiet Conversation
a single number value in the same 30 1,000 8
Studio (Speech)
manner as our ears perceived
sound. The A weighting discounts Rustle of Leaves 20 100 4
VERY
the low-frequency sound level FAINT
Whisper 10 10 2
perception (This will be discussed Soundproof Room 0 0 0

further under Sound Level Meters).

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Subjective effects
• Physiolocial
• Psycholocial
• Cognitive
• Behavioural

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Characteristics of Sound
The physical characteristics of sound waves influence the three psychological features of
sound: loudness, pitch, and timbre.
Pitch
Pitch refers to the highness or
lowness of a sound.
The pitch of a sound that you

hear depends on the
frequency of the sound wave.
Sound waves with a high

frequency have a high pitch
and sound waves with a low
frequency have a low pitch. • High frequency means more vibrations hitting the ear.
• Pitch is how high or how low a sound seems to be.
• Healthy humans can hear from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
• We are most sensitive from 440 Hz to 7,000 Hz.

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• Lungs: Air From the lungs rushes up the trachea
• Vocal Cords: which are located in your voice
box, or larynx vibrate as air rushes pass them
• Sound: Sound waves produced by the vibrating
vocal cords come out through the mouth
A man’s vocal chords are normally longer and more massive than a female’s voice.
Hence, a male’s voice is low pitched compared to the female’s voice.

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Loudness

Loudness or intensity describes your perception of
energy of sound.
Intensity refers to energy delivered to a unit area of

a surface per unit of time.
The SI unit of intensity is watts/.
The degree of loudness or faintness of a sound depends upon the different factors
1. Amount of energy of a sound

2. Distance from the source of sound
3. The state of the medium through which the sound is transmitted
4. The amount of the original vibrations
5. The frequency of the vibration
6. Area to which the sound is produced

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Energy of a Sound Source
The greater the energy used to make a sound, the

louder the sound
Example: Playing a guitar

• When you use more energy to pull the strings
of the guitar, the louder the noise produced by
the guitar is.
• The more energy you use, the larger the amplitude

• The larger the amplitude produces a louder sound.
Amplitude is the distance between the normal position to the final position of an
object which is producing specific vibration.

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Distance From a Sound Source
• Loudness increases the closer you are to a sound source.
• Close to the sound source, the sound waves cover a small area
• As waves travel away from the sound source, it covers more area
• The total energy of the wave stays the same whether it’s close to the source or far
away from it
• The closer the sound wave is to its source, the more energy it has in a given area.
• The amount of energy a sound wave carries per second through a unit area is its
Intensity
• A sound wave of greater intensity sounds louder
• When you move away from the sound source, loudness decreases, because the
intensity decreases.

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LOUDNESS INTENSITY
• It is degree of SENSATION • It is the quantity of SOUND

Produced on the ear. ENERGY flowing across unit
• It various from listener to listener. AREA in unit TIME.
• It is a PHYSIOLOGICAL • It is independent to listener.
quantity. • It is a PHYSICAL quantity.
• Its unit is SONE. • Its unit is Weber/m².

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Measuring Loudness
Loudness is measured using the unit called the Bel (B) in honor of Alexander Graham
Bell. A bel is a rather large unit; the smaller unit is decibel (dB) is often used instead.
1B = 10dB
Intensity Levels of Common Sounds

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OCTAVE BANDS:
For convenience, the audible
frequency range is divided into
octave bands, each band having
range of one octave. The upper
frequency limit is therefore twice
the value of lower limit. A large
percentage of total speech
intelligibility is provided by the
fifth, sixth, seventh bands.
Octaves in Human Hearing

Octaves are groups of
frequencies that help quantify
how humans distinguish between
frequencies.
Octaves represent the overall

level of energy over a specific
frequency range.
Figure 1: An octave map. Each vertical block is an octave and represents the overall level
of sound energy over that range of frequencies.

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How are octave bands determined?
The term “octave band” is borrowed from music theory where there is a doubling of
frequency between notes of the same name.
figure 2: In music, there is a doubling of frequency between notes of the same name

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Octave bands in human hearing are developed in the same manner: the
range of human hearing (20-20kHz) is divided into eleven octave bands,
each band having double the frequency span of the previous band. These
are called the 1/1 octave bands.
To more closely match

how humans distinguish
frequencies, each 1/1
octave band can be split
into three bands. These
are called the 1/ 3
octave bands. These
smaller bands more
closely represent how
humans distinguish
between frequencies.
Figure 3: The lower, upper, and center frequencies of the 1/1 octave
bands over the human hearing range.
Figure 4: The upper, lower, and center

frequencies for the 1/3 octave bands.

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Quality/ Timbre
• Quality or timbre is that the property of tone
that distinguishes it from another tone of the
same pitch and intensity but produced by
different sources (voices and instruments).
• Timbre is then a general term for the

distinguishable characteristics of a tone.
• These difference in quality are due to the

varying vibrations of the sound sources.
• In simple terms, timbre is what makes a

particular musical sound different from another,
even when they have the same pitch and
loudness.
• For instance, it is the difference between a

guitar and a piano playing the same note at the
same loudness.

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Behavior of sound in an enclosed space
An enclosed space is a room or area bounded on every of its sides. The materials for
enclosure may be classified into two:
• Those that allow sound rays to pass through and
• Those that do not allow sound rays to pass through.
Areas bounded with materials that allow sound rays to pass through tend to enjoy good acoustic as the effect of
indirect sound from reflection is reduced within the space. In this space, sound from external source can pass
through the material into the enclosure as background noise. The vibration of some of the materials can be a
source of noise within the space and this can be a bane to the achievement of clear and audible speech and
music.
The effect of indirect sound may be pronounced in spaces enclosed with materials that do not allow the passage
of sound rays through them. Adjustments to the material to aid diffusion will improve the acoustic of the space.
Some of these materials can absorb sound, reducing the effect of indirect sound
On encountering barriers posed by the enclosure, sound waves are likely to behave in the following ways:
• Reflection
• Absorption
• Refraction
• Diffusion
• Diffraction
• Transmission

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Reflection
This occurs when the wavelength of a sound wave is smaller than the surface of an obstacle. In the
case of an enclosed space, the sound waves hit every side of the enclosure continuously until the
sound energy reduces to zero. The amount of waves reflected depends on the smoothness, size, and
softness of the materials of enclosure. The angle of incidence of sound rays is equal to that of the
reflected rays only if the surface of the reflector is flat. But when it is curved, the angles are different.

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Absorption
When sound waves hit the

surface of an obstacle, some
of its energy is reflected while
some are lost through its
transfer to the molecules of
the barrier. The lost sound
energy is said to have been
absorbed by the barrier. The
thickness and nature of the
material as regards its softness
and hardness influences the
amount of sound energy
absorbed.

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Refraction
This is the bending of sound

when it travels from one
medium into another medium.
The difference in the
composition of the two different
media bends the sound i.e. the
angle of incidence changes into
an angle of refraction as it
travels into the new
medium.

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Diffusion
This is the scattering of waves

from a surface. It occurs as a
result of the texture and hardness
of the obstacle is comparable to
the wavelength of the sound.
The direction of the incident ray

changes when it strikes the surface
of the obstacle. Satisfaction is
achieved when sound is heard in
all direction at equal level.

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Diffraction
When the wavelength of a

sound wave is smaller or
equal to the size of the
obstacle, the sound rays
tend to bend round the
edge of the obstacle
thereby turning the edge
to a sound source.

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Transmission
In this phenomenon, sound wave is carried by molecules of the obstacle

through vibration and reemitted at the other side irrespective of the
medium. It can be structure borne, air borne or impact sound.

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Ray diagram
• Ray diagram is analogous to specular reflection of light. Analysis

of ray diagrams can be used to study the effect of room shape on
the distribution of sound and to identify surfaces that may
produce echoes.
• A ray diagram shows both reflected and direct sound paths.
• The difference between these two paths is called path difference

(Path Difference = Reflected Path - Direct Path).
• A path difference in excess of the distance that can be travelled

by a sound wave in 0.05 seconds indicates that the reflected
sound can be perceived as discrete echo.

57
Source – Path – Receiver

58
Ray diagram

59
SOUND ABSORPTION The amount of absorption,
reflection, and transmission of the
When sound reaches a barrier, three things can happen as shown in sound is different for every
Figure 1: frequency.
• Absorption – The sound is absorbed and dissipated as heat. For example, a high frequency
• Transmission – Sound can pass through the barrier. sound with a short wavelength can
• Reflection – Sound can be reflected back off the barrier. be absorbed by a thinner piece of
material, while lower frequency
sounds are not absorbed, due to
their longer wavelength.
An open window is an excellent

absorber since the sounds passing
through the open window are not
reflected back but makes a poor
sound barrier. Painted concrete
block is a good sound barrier but
will reflect about 97% of the
incident sound striking it.
Figure 1: Sound at a barrier can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected.

60
For the vast majority of conventional
acoustical materials, the material
thickness has the greatest impact on
the material’s sound absorbing
qualities. While the inherent
composition of the acoustical
material determines the material’s
acoustical performance, other factors
can be brought to bear to improve or
influence the acoustical
performance. Incorporating an air
space behind an acoustical ceiling or
wall panel often serves to improve
low-frequency performance.

61
Absorption Quantification
Absorption is can be expressed via the “absorption coefficient” (Equation 1) which can have a
value between 0 and 1.
α=
Equation 1: Calculating the absorption coefficient.
Alpha represents the absorption coefficient.

• When the absorption coefficient equals one, all the sound is absorbed
• When the absorption coefficient equals zero, no sound is absorbed
Absorption coefficient
α=Iα/Ii
α = absorption coefficient
Iα = sound power intensity absorbed (w/cm2)
Ii = sound power impinging on material (w/cm2)
1.0 is total absorption

62
Absorption Quantification
Typically, the absorption coefficient for a given material is plotted as a function of
frequency as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Absorption curve.
Between 50 and 100 Hz in Figure 2, 100% of sound is absorbed. Below 50Hz, the
material does not absorb well. Thicker material may aid in helping to absorb the lower
frequencies.

63
Sound Absorption Coefficients
materials constituting the boundaries of an enclosure will absorb and reflect
All
sound. A fraction α of the incident energy is absorbed and the balance (1 – α) is
reflected. Reflection is indicated by the reflection coefficient r defined as
r=
Because the energy in a sound wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude,
the sound absorption coefficient α and the reflection coefficient are related by
α=1−r2
The value of the sound absorption coefficient α will vary with the frequency of the
incident ray and the angle of incidence. Materials comprising room surfaces are
subject to sound waves that impinge upon them from many different angles as a
result of multiple reflections.

64
The value of the sound absorption coefficient α will vary
with the frequency of the incident ray and the angle of
incidence. Materials comprising room surfaces are subject to
sound waves that impinge upon them from many different
angles as a result of multiple reflections. Hence, published
data for absorption coefficients are for “random” incidence
as distinguished from “normal” or “perpendicular”
incidence. The angle–absorption correlation appears to be of
somewhat erratic nature, but at high frequencies the
absorption coefficients in some materials is roughly constant
at all angles. At low frequencies the random-incidence
absorption tends to be greater than for normal incidence.
However, as Table 11.1 shows, α varies considerably with
frequency for many materials, and the absorption
coefficients are generally measured at six standard
frequencies: 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz.
Absorption occurs as the result of incident sound penetrating
and becoming entrapped in the absorbing material, thereby
losing its vibrational energy that converts into heat through
friction. Ordinarily the values of α should fall between zero
for a perfect reflector and unity for a perfect absorber.
Measurements of α > 1.0 have been reported, owing
possibly to diffraction at low frequencies and other testing
condition irregularities.

65
α1, α2, α3, ...αi denote the absorption coefficient of different materials of
Let
corresponding areas S1, S2, S3,.... Si forming the interior boundary planes (viz. the
walls, ceiling and floor) of the room as well as any other absorbing surfaces (e.g.
furniture, draperies, people, etc.). The average absorption coefficient α for an
enclosure is defined by
α= =AS
where A represents the total absorptive area ∑ α iSi , and S the total spatial area.

66
Reverberation and Echo
Reverberation: This is the persistence of sound in an enclosed space as a result

of continuous reflection or scattering of sound after the source has stopped. It is
one the most prominent behaviors of sound in an enclosure. It occurs when
sound waves hits a surface and are reflected toward another surface which also
reflects it. Some of the sound is absorbed with this continuous reflection which
gradually reduces the energy of the sound to zero. The phenomenon can affect
the audibility of sound in an enclosure, especially if the reverberation time,
which is the time taken for the sound pressure level to diminish to 60 dB below
its initial value is considerably long.
Echo: this occurs when the reverberation time is long enough to cause a distinct
repetition of the direct sound. This condition is an advanced form of
reverberation where the sound is heard clearly and repeatedly after some time
until it fades.

67
Effects of geometery
Round: Reflections from

Rectangle: Lateral Fan-shape: Reflections scatter
concave surfaces cause
reflections occur in and are directed mainly to the
sound to strongly focus on
the entire space rear part of the space (not in the
some parts of the space
middle)

68
Effects of geometry

69
Sabine’s Formula
Sabine’s formula is given by the following:
• RT60 is the reverberation time (to drop 60 dB)

• V is the volume of the room
• c20 is the speed of sound at 20°C (room temperature)
• Sa is the total absorption in sabins
The sabin unit has the same dimension as area (e.g. m2). A one square meter surface with an
absorption coefficient of 0.75 would be considered 0.75 sabins. The absorption coefficient has
a range of 0 to 1, where a coefficient of 0 indicates none of the sound is absorbed, and a
coefficient of 1 indicates that 100% of it is absorbed.
Since we know the speed of sound at 20°C is 343 m/s, we can do a little math and reduce the
formula to:
(Note that the factor 0.161 has the units seconds per meter; dimensional
analysis on the equation will yield a time in seconds as the volume is
measured in cubic meters and sabins in square meters).

70
Problem 1: Let us use this formula to calculate the reverberation time of a fictitious lecture hall. Let us
say the hall has a 5-meter tall ceiling, is 20 meters wide and 10 meters deep. Let us also say that the
absorption coefficient for the walls, ceiling, and floors is 0.3.
To use Sabine’s Formula, we’ll first need the volume:
The total absorption, in sabins, is the total area times the absorption coefficient. The total area in includes
4 walls, a ceiling, and a floor, which when multiplied by the absorption coefficient gives us the total
absorption in sabins:
Problem 2: Let us use the dimensions of the room above, but specify different absorption coefficients for
the different surfaces. Let us say the tile floor has a coefficient of 0.01, the ceiling a coefficient of 0.5,
and the 4 walls a coefficient of 0.2.
The total absorption in sabins becomes:
This is very close to one second, which is ideal for a lecture hall.

71
In the examples above, we used the metric system, but if we wanted to measure the room in feet, we would need
to use the speed of sound in feet per second (1125 ft/s). Doing so would result in a different coefficient for
Sabine’s formula:
(Note now the coefficient has the units s/ft. Here the sabin has the units of ft2and can be called the imperial sabin, as opposed the
metric sabin used in the previous examples).
Conclusion
The sabin, named in honor of Wallace Sabine, is a unit of measure; one imperial sabin equals one square foot of
100% absorbing material, and one metric sabin equals one square meter of 100% absorbing material. Stemming
from Sabine’s 19th century work a new field of study was born. Today, computer programs incorporate Sabine’s
formula to help engineers and architects model and design future concert and lecture halls around the globe.
Source: https://www.thermaxxjackets.com/sabine-modern-architectural/

72
Sound Absorbent Materials
The sound absorbing materials are broadly classified into the

following four categories:
Porous absorbents
e.g. : fiber boards, rock wood, wool, soft plasters, mineral wools, glass silk, asbestos fiber,
spray, etc.
Cavity Resonators: It is a chamber or a container having a

small opening for sound waves to enter.
Resonant Panel: e.g. : window doors, rigid plastic boards, wood and hard-board, panels,
suspended plaster ceilings, gypsum boards etc.
Composites type absorbents: e.g. : bottle or an empty jars, glass, wood, quilt or slab,
perforated hard board backed by perforated fiber board etc.

73
Porous absorbents
Porous absorbers are the most

commonly used sound absorbing
materials. Commonly used porous
materials are Wood, wools, soft plaster,
asbestos fibre, glass wool, Fibre boards
carpet etc. Generally, all of these
materials allow air to flow into a cellular
structure where sound energy is
converted to heat. Thickness plays an
important role in sound absorption by
porous materials. Thin film of Fabric
applied directly to a hard, massive
substrate, such as plaster or gypsum
board does not make an efficient sound
absorber. Thicker materials generally
provide more bass sound absorption or
damping.

74
Porous absorbents
• When sound waves strike the surface of porous material, a part of the waves get reflected
while a part enters the pores of the material and dissipated into heat energy
• The efficiency of this type of absorbent increases with the increase in the resistance offered
by the material.
• It is used to absorb sound having high frequency

75
Resonant absorbents:
Panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-porous materials

which are placed over an airspace that vibrates in a
flexural mode in response to sound pressure exerted
by adjacent air molecules. When the sound wave
strikes the panel due to vibration of the panel the
energy is absorbed and finally converted into heat.
Common panel (membrane) absorbers include thin
wood paneling over framing, lightweight impervious
ceilings and floors, glazing and other large surfaces
capable of resonating in response to sound. Panel
absorbers are usually most efficient at absorbing low
frequencies.

76
Resonant absorbents :-
• The absorbent material is fixed on sound framing (timber)

with an air space between the framing and the wall at
back.
• Such arrangement works most efficient for absorbing

sound waves at low frequency
• The principle of sound absorption is that sound waves of

the appropriate frequency cause sympathetic vibrations in
the panel which acts as a diaphragm
• The absorption of sound takes place by virtue of the

dampening of the sympathetic vibration.
• Dampening effect of this system can be improved by

placing a porous material in the air space
Source: http://slideplayer.com/slide/10726116/

77
Cavity Resonators:
Resonators typically act to absorb

sound in a narrow frequency range.
Resonators include some perforated
materials and materials that have
openings (holes and slots). When sound
waves enters into the resonator, due to
multiple reflection inside the resonators
waves are absorbed. The classic
example of a resonator is the Helmholtz
resonator, which has the shape of a
bottle. The size of the opening, the
length of the neck and the volume of air
trapped in the chamber govern the
resonant frequency .

78
Typically, perforated materials only
absorb the mid-frequency range
unless special care is taken in
designing the facing to be as
acoustically transparent as possible.
Slots usually have a similar acoustic
response. Long narrow slots can be
used to absorb low frequencies. The
resonators are suitable for certain
frequencies for which they are
designed. Therefore resonators have
to be designed for specific purpose
for example to absorb noise from air
conditioner or from pumps etc.

79
Cavity Resonators:
• It essentially consists of a chamber with

a narrow opening (entrance) in which
absorption takes place by resonance of
the air in the chamber which gives loss
of sound energy
• Such an arrangement can act effectively

over a single selected frequency.
• Application of cavity resonator is

normally restricted to absorption from
individual machine or in similar cases

80
Composites type absorbents:
• They consist of perforated panels mounted on
battens so as to leave a cavity between panels and
wall at the back
• The panels maybe of metal, wood (plywood) hard

broad, plaster board etc.
• The area of holes in the panel should vary between

10 to 20 % of the total area of the panel
• When the sound strikes the panel, the sound waves

pass through the holes and get damped by the
resonance of the air in the cavity.
• The effectiveness of this system can be increased

by placing a porous material like mineral wood • This type of absorbent is commonly used, as
etc. in the cavity. it is easy to install, economical and it can
accommodate wide range of frequencies

81
Distribution of sound absorbing material
Hard surface
The efficiency of a sound absorbing

material depends upon its distribution
and location with in the given room. If a
sound absorbing material is distributed
in a chessboard pattern as shown in Fig 1
its efficiency is improved drastically
compared to the uniform coverage
pattern of fig 2. Sound absorbing material
The improved efficiency for the
absorption of the sound in check board Fig 1 Chess board pattern for efficient absorption of sound
pattern is due to the diffraction of sound
waves across the perimeter of the sound Interfacing Wall
absorbing material. More over the sound
reflected from the hard surfaces adjacent
to chessboard absorbing surfaces tends to
spill over the sound absorbing surfaces
and so the absorption of sound further Sound absorbing surface Hard
improves. This kind of surface can also surface/room
be used to make a diffuse sound field
normally required for music practice
rooms, studios etc.
Fig 2 Uniformly distributed absorbing material

82
Transmission of sound
Sound waves emerging from a point source inside a hall proceed in a spherical wave. When it
strikes the boundaries of a hall, it undergoes reflection, absorption and transmission. All these
process depends on the boundaries of the hall (e.g: material, surface structure etc)and the
frequency spectrum of sound waves. The sound transmitted through the wall is measured in
terms of transmission coefficient tc defined as
Intensity of sound transmitted

tC 
total sound intensity falling on to the walls
When a sound is transmitted from the source to the adjacent room through boundries or
adjoining walls, there is a reduction in the intensity of sound. This is known as the
transmission loss. The transmission loss TL is defined as
1
TL  10 log  
 tC 
The larger the transmission loss better will be the sound insulation. The transmission loss
depends on the material and method used for construction of walls.

83
Factors effecting the architectural acoustics
In an Acoustically good hall the loudness of sound and its clarity at every point in side the
hall is audible. The sound dies out quickly with time to make room for next syllable. The
following factors affect the architectural acoustics:
Reverberation time: reverberation time has to be optimize for a given hall. If the time is too
large then there will be loss of clarity due to overlapping of successive sound signals and if it
is too small then the loudness of the sound will be less. The optimized time is given by eq 1.
Reverberation can be controlled by
i. keeping the windows and ventilators open.
ii. Using heavy curtains
iii. By using the wooden or carpeted floor.
iv. Making the walls surface rough
Focusing of sound waves: Sound waves on reflection from a curved surface will get focused
at some point just like a lens focuses the light. In the focused region intensity of sound will be
large where as in other regions will have poor audibility. In order to avoid the non uniform
distribution of sound intensity due to focusing, the curved ceilings/surceases should be
avoided.

84
Adequate loudness:
For the good audibility the loudness should be sufficient. The low ceiling helps the reflected
sound to reach the audience with sufficient intensity. To improve the uniformity of the
distribution of intensity of sound waves as well as to improve the loudness, behind the
speaker a parabolic sound reflector as shown in Fig 3 can be placed such that speaker is at the
focus of the reflector. The reflected sound waves will be parallel and will yield better
uniformity.
Fig 3 Parabolic reflector

85
Absence of echo:
When the gap between the arrival time of direct sound and the reflected sound is more than
1/7 of a second. If this time is less then 1/7 then the reflected wave overlaps with the direct
wave and improves the intensity of sound waves. There fore the major source of echo is the
sound reflected from the long ceilings and the distance walls. It can be avoided by covering
the ceilings and walls with the suitable absorbing materials.
Sound insulation from external sources or extraneous noise:

For a good acoustics architecture the sound or noise from outside should not be audible inside
the hall. This can be minimize by having the doors at appropriate places. The pipes opening
should be avoided near the ventilators and windows. Use of appropriate absorbent material on
the outer side of walls also dampens the outside noise.

86
ACOUSTICAL TESTS AND
MEASUREMENTS
WHY MEASURE?
Under many circumstances, the interaction of

speakers with the acoustical environment can
completely negate the very best electrical
engineering. Therefore it becomes obvious, that to
fully engineer the sound system the characteristics
of space where it will be used must be considered.
WHAT TO MEASURE?
For getting good listening conditions, basic tests
are to be done. There are four basic conditions that
need to be measured and subjected to control.
These are:
1) Quietness
2) Proper reverberation
3) Useful and adequate loudness
4) Proper distribution

87
QUIETNESS:
A sound system is planned in the first place because either the program material needs
help in overcoming the noise present, or the distances involved make acoustical gain
necessary. Usually system planning must take both these into consideration. We need to
know two things about the noise present: its total sound pressure level (SPL) 7 its
distribution by frequency.
PROPER REVEBERATION:
Sound must "hang on" long enough to allow to sound natural, and yet not long enough to
allow one word to blur the next word during the normal speech. It is often desirable to
have low frequencies to reverberate longer than higher frequencies in the same space.
Here also two factors should be considered: How long it takes sound to decay it the room
& how the decay time varies with frequencies.

88
USEFUL AND ADEQATE LOUDNESS:
Useful & adequate loudness must be achieved if the audience is to here. Failure to
achieve useful loudness can be attributed to:
(1) No uniform frequency response,
(2) High distortion of the signal,
(3) Improper polar response characteristics,
(4) Incorrect high /low cutoff frequencies,
(5) Improper equalizations.
PROPER DISTRIBUTION:
The entire audience in a listening area needs to hear clearly. Good listening in one seat
must not be at the expense of marginal listening elsewhere. No seat should be located in
the dead spot. Graphic level recorder, random noise generator, and tunable 1/3-octave filter
have made it possible to quickly & economically search the entire audience area for
changes in acoustical level.

89
SPECIFIC MEASUREMENTS:
Basic environmental and system parameters that can be measured during an acoustical
survey are:
1) Ambient noise level
2) Reverberation times of the environment
3) Distribution of sound (All at 1/3 octave band interval)
At the listeners’ seat:

1) Frequency response
2) Total harmonic distortion
3) The relative direct to reflected sound differences of amplitude and time.

90
INSTRUMENTATION FOR ACOUSTICAL TESTS:
A list of equipment comprising a typical acoustical measuring chain can be compiled as:
1) A sound level meter with interchangeable microphones, weighing scales, &

recorder output battery operated & capable of meeting ASA standards: It is a very sensitive audio-
frequency voltmeter with a calibrated attenuator. It measures sound pressure level using formula:
SPL = 20 log10 p/0.0002
Where, SPL is the sound pressure level in dB, p is measured pressure in dynes per
sq.cm. Although it gives an accurate reading in decibels, it does not give pressure
distribution.
2) A calibrated condenser microphone system: General characteristics of these

are:
Ruggedness, low internal noise, sensitivity, wide dynamic range, smooth frequency response, extended
frequency response, low distortion. All the qualities do not exist in same microphone. General compromise
is to use calibrated ceramic microphone.

91
3) A constant percentage bandwidth wave analyzer: A wave analyzer, connected to the output of sound
level meter, indicates in detail the frequency distribution of any signal. These are of three basic types:
constant bandwidth, band rejection filter, and constant percentage bandwidth. Once the frequency is known,
wavelength is calculated by:
W = V/F
Where, W is wavelength in feet,

V is velocity of sound in feet per second,
F is frequency in cycles per second.
4) A high-speed graphic level recorder: In case of reverberation time

measurements, automatic recording is mandatory. Servo operated ac-recording
voltmeters suitable for acoustic work is called graphic level recorders. This can be
operated in either forward or reverse direction, thus allowing a resonance in space
to be approached from either direction frequency wise.
5) A calibrated x-y oscilloscope: Amplitude, frequency, and time can be measured with more than adequate
accuracy using a combination of sound level meter, a wave analyzer, and a graphic level recorder. With the
addition of a calibrated oscilloscope and an oscilloscope camera, signal waveforms can be seen and
phenomena recorded that are of too short a duration to be written down accurately by a graphic level
recorder.

92
6) An oscilloscope camera.
7) A sound level calibrator: It is to calibrate the entire chain of instruments this is used. Once the chain
of appliances is set, a known acoustical signal must be applied to bring all readings into agreement.
Sound level calibrator does this.
8) A tape recorder: In many instances it is desirable to store data for later

evaluation or to record transient signals for repetitive analysis. Recorder is used for this purpose.
9) All of the following are the sound sources used:

• A random noise generator.
• A pink noise filter.
• A beat frequency oscillator.
• An audio burst keyer.
10) Power amplifiers & speakers: All signal sources require electronic amplification
and conversion to acoustical energy. This is done by the amplifiers & speakers.
11) A barometer.
12) A sling psychometre.

93
Basic requirements for good acoustics
A building or the hall designed for the large audience should take care of certain features so the
audible sound is exact replica of the source. Any hall having the good acoustics should have
following features:
1. The quality of the speech and the music remains unchanged in each and every portion of
the Hall.
2. The sound produced must be sufficiently loud.
3. There shouldn’t be any echo.
4. The reverberation should be proper.
5. There should not be any focusing of sound in any part of the hall.
6. The walls should be sound proof to avoid the external noise in the hall.

94
AUDITORIUM DESIGN AND ACOUSTICS

95
BRIEF HISTORY:
The auditorium, as a place for listening, developed from the classical open-air theaters, but there is little
evidence that the Greeks and Romans gave particular consideration to acoustical principles when they selected
natural sites and built open-air theaters.
The first reference to architectural acoustics in recorded history is made by Vitruvius (first century B.C.). In
his book, he describes sounding waves as being used in certain open air theaters, but no evidence exists that
the few vases found near the theaters were used for acoustical purposes. After the fall of Romans, the only
type of auditorium built during the Middle Ages was church hall. Middle of sixteenth century, strolling
professional actors in England used the round, square, or octagonal courtyards of inns as playhouses. In
subsequent centuries, a remarkable number of theaters were built. In seventeenth century, the horseshoe
shaped opera house with a large stage area and stage house, and with ring of boxes, or tiers, on top of each
other, stacked to the ceiling. But in all these no specific steps were taken. The first scientific work was in
Athanasius Kircher's, appeared in seventeenth century. Before the twentieth century, only one auditorium was
acoustically treated.
It was not till twentieth century, that Professor W.C. Sabin, did his pioneer work on room acoustical design.
He first designed the coefficient of sound absorption and arrived at a simple relation between the volume of a
room, the amount of sound absorbing material in it, and its reverberation time.

96
DESIGN: FROM THE STANDARDS:
OUTLINE OF ACOUSTICAL REQUIREMENTS:

a) There should be adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium particularly the remote
seats.
b) The sound energy should be uniformly distributed in the room.
c) The audience and the most efficient presentation of the program by the performers should
provide optimum reverberation characteristics in the auditorium to allow the most favorable
reception of the program material.
d) The room should be free of such acoustical defects as echoes, long delayed reflections,
flutter echoes, sound concentrations, distortion, sound shadow, and room resonance.
e) Noises and vibrations which would interfere with listening or performing should be
excluded or reasonably reduced in every part of the room.

97
ADEQUATE LOUDNESS:
The problem of providing adequate loudness, particularly in medium and large sized auditoriums,
results from the energy losses of the traveling sound waves and from excessive absorption by the
audience and room contents. Sound energy losses can be reduced and adequate loudness can be
provided in the following ways:
a. The auditorium should be shaped so that the audience is as close to sound source as possible.
b. Sound source should be raised high.
c. The floor where audience is seated should be properly racked. It should not be more than 1in
8.
d. The sound source should be closely and abundantly surrounded with large sound reflective
surfaces. Initial time delay gap between direct and first reflective sound should be relatively
short, possibly not more than 30 milliseconds.
e. Parallelism between opposite sound reflective boundary surfaces, particularly close to the
sound source, should be avoided.

98
DIFFUSION OF SOUND:
Two important points must be considered in the effort to provide diffusion in a
room : the surface irregularities elements (coffered ceilings, serrated enclosures,
protruding boxes sculptured surface decorations, deep window reveals, etc) must be abundantly
applied and should be relatively large.
CONTROL OF REVERBERATION:
In the acoustical design of an auditorium, once the optimum RT at the mid

frequency range has been selected and the RT vs. frequency relationship below 500Hz decided
upon, the reverberation control consists of establishing the total
amount of room absorption to be applied by acoustical finishes, occupants, room contents, etc., in
order to produce the selected value of RT. In almost every
auditorium the audience provides most of the absorption. Therefore to have good hearing
conditions even in audience absence, the seats should be upholstered, with underneath side of
them also absorptive. Sound absorbing materials should be all along the boundary surfaces. The
acoustical treatment should go first on the rear wall, then on those portions of the sidewalls, which
are farthest from the source or along the perimeter of the ceiling.

99
ELIMINATION OF ROOM ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS:
a) Echo: Echo occurs if a minimum interval of 1/25 sec to 1/10 sec elapses between
the perception of the direct and reflected sounds originating from the same source.
Since the speed of sound is about 344 m/sec, the critical time intervals specified
above corresponds to path difference of min. 24 m for speech or 34 m for music
between direct and reflected sound. A sound reflective rear wall, opposite the sound
source, is a potential echo-producing surface in the auditorium unless it is treated or
is under deep balcony.
b) Flutter echo: Flutter echo consists of a rapid succession of noticeable small echoes
and is observed when a short burst of sound, such as a clap or shot, is produced
between parallel surfaces. Elimination of parallelism between opposite reflecting
surfaces is one way to avoid flutter echoes.

100
c) Sound concentration: Sound concentrations, sometimes referred to as hot spots are
caused by sound reflections from concave surfaces. If large concave surfaces
cannot be avoided or acoustical treatment is not feasible, these concave surfaces
should be laid out in such a manner that they focus in space outside or above the
audience area.
d) Coupled spaces: If an auditorium is connected to an adjacent reverberant space by

means of open doorways, the two rooms will form open spaces. The undesirable
effect of coupled spaces can be overcome by adequate acoustical separation
between the coupled spaces, by providing approximately the same RT in both
spaces or by reducing the RT of both.
e) Sound shadow: The phenomenon of sound shadow is noticeable under the balcony
that protrudes too far into the air space of an auditorium. Such spaces, with the
depth exceeding twice the height, should be avoided.

101
ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES FOR AUDITORIUM
An auditorium is a centre for performing arts. They enclose large area in which echoes
are prominent. So far clear hearing, proper acoustical conditions should be provided in
the auditorium. The design of various types of auditorium has become complex in the
present day architectural practice. This is because in addition to various requirements,
some time conflict aesthetic, functional, technical, artistic
and economic requirement. An audience can be unexpectedly large or only half full
only. Various types of performances make it difficult to provide optimum comfort, safe,
pleasant environment and considerably is affected by purely architectural consideration
like room shape, dimension, volume, boundary, layout surface, seating arrangement,
capacity, surface treatment, materials for interior decoration.

102
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
1. SITE: Select a quiet exposure far away from highway, flight paths or noisy
industries.
2. Space use: Multipurpose uses include lectures, dramas, instrumental recitals and
symphonic music. Consequently, a full frequency-response sound reinforcing
system will be required.
3. Interior location: Use corridors, storage rooms and other buffer spaces to isolate
the auditorium from noise, avoid location adjacent to rehearsal rooms (e.g.: do not
locate HVAC equipment under the stage), carpentry shops and other noisy spaces.
Enclosing construction should be based on the principles for e.g. all doors to the
auditorium should be solid, heavy and gasket around their entire perimeters to be
air tight when closed. Treat corridors and lobbies with generous amounts of sound
absorbing materials to control noise build up. Dead spaces tend to include
occupants to speak at lower voice levels.

103
4. Volume: Volume per seat should be 200-240 ft3 per person, which can be
achieved with a room volume less than 500,000 ft3. The preliminary shape can be
based on visual or seating consideration above. However, to emphasize lateral
reflection, plans that are rectangular, roughly square, or only slightly fanned are
preferred. Arrange seating to provide the audience with good sight line (e.g.
moderately sloped seating layout at > 70) and to minimize distance to the
performing area.
5. Reverberation: The reverberation time should be 1.4-1.9 sec at midnight

frequencies (i.e. Average of reverberation at 500 Hz and 1000Hz) 1.3 at 125Hz
and 0.8rt at 4000Hz. A high frequency, too much reverberation usually means
“harsh” or “rasping” listening conditions. At low frequency, too much
reverberation usually sounds “boomy” whereas too little sound, “shrill”.

104
The following general guideline can be used to select finishes,
materials and furnishings.
a. PLAN: The diagrams indicate some of the geometrical implications of the source spread focus balance.
Because the widely diverging walls of a fan plan auditorium send the reflected sound energy towards the
rear corners of the space, the apparent source is virtually limited to the actual width of the performing
group. Typical rear wall geometries in the fan plan further prevent the development of the strong discrete
reflections that are necessary in the 50 to 150 millisecond time period if proper running reverberance as
well as a desirable sense of envelopment is to be provided.
In the multiple use auditorium, where one would desire both focus for individual performers and breadth
of source for large musical group, the provisions of adjustable reflective, absorptive elements is necessary
to modify the sound distribution. This adjustability is fully compatible with and closely related to that
which would provide to alter the clarity running reverberance balance. Basically the adjustments required
to add focus consists of narrowing the width (and height) of the performance area by means of carefully
oriented reflective surfaces. These surfaces should either replace or shield the reflective surfaces which
produce the source broadening reflection. Where reflection control cannot be provided, deleterious
reflections may be controlled by adjustable sound absorbing devices (draperies, banners reversible,
panels, etc.) Acceptable modifications of the classical rectangular plan are possible if the designer bears in
mind the need for detail consideration of the relation between performance area and the front wall and
ceiling.

105
106
107
108
109
b. Ceiling: Use sound reflective materials such as concrete, thick wood or thick
gypsum board. However if required for control of reverberation, the perimeter
along both sides and rear can be sound absorbing (about 1/3 to1/2 of the ceiling
area covered in a horse shoe pattern) or use a check board pattern consisting of
alternate areas of sound absorbing and reflecting materials. The preferred ceiling
height and shape depend on the intended use of room. A ray diagram analysis
indicates that the hard, sound reflecting flat ceiling shown below provides useful
sound reflection which covers the entire seating area in lecture room. Useful for
sound reflection for speech for those who comes from the same direction as the
source and delay by less than 30 m. However, by carefully reorienting the ceiling,
the extent of useful ceiling reflection can be increased so that the middle rear seats
actually receive reflection from both ceiling panels.
c. Side walls: Use sound reflecting and diffusing surface with as many irregularities
as possible (e.g. sunken panels, splays, and undulations) for variable sound
absorption, hang large amount of fabric curtain or banners along the rear portion of
side walls or in cubic volume above suspended sound reflecting panels.
110
d. Rear wall: Use diffusing surface with large-scale irregularities or, if this is not
possible, treat with carefully placed deep sound absorbing finish to control echoes.
e. Floor: Carpet all aisles, except in front of the stage, to aid in football impact noise
control. Do not use carpet in seating areas.
f. Seating: Use fabric- upholstered seats (never leatherette, thin metal, or plastic).
Absorptive seating will help provide “stable” reverberation conditions, so the
reverberation will be nearly the same when the auditorium is full as when it is
partially occupied. Use seating that does not selectively absorb sound at low
frequencies. Continental seating layouts have greater spacing between rows than
conventional seating with center aisles. However, continental seating in large
auditoriums can present a vast uninterrupted sea of absorptive people to performers
on stage.

111
6. Ray Diagrams: Use ray-diagrams analysis to properly orient the ceiling and side
walls, especially near the proscenium. Ceiling and wall surfaces should provide
useful sound reflections (i.e. early reflections with<28 ft path difference from direct
sound) and diffusion. Avoid vaults, domes, and other concave shapes.
7. Background Noise: Background noise should be low so it will not cover up or

mask performances. The HVAC system should be designed so its noise will not
exceed the preferred noise criteria. Control air velocities at room registers and
grilles, and use internal sound-absorbing duct linings and/or mufflers to prevent
duct- borne noise transmission in both the supply and return air distribution systems.

112
8. Stage Enclosure and Orchestra Pit: Shape to provide good distribution of strong
early reflections and diffusion. The reverberation time of the stage house should be
approximately equal to that of the auditorium. Reverberation will be longer when
surfaces surrounding the stage are shaped to inter reflect or scatter sound rather than
to reflect sound toward the absorptive audience. The orchestra pit, sized at about 14
to 16 ft2 per musician, should have a removable sound absorbing curtain (or panels)
along its rear wall to allow the conductor to control loudness in the pit.
9. Balcony: Use balconies to reduce the distance to the farthest row of seats and/or to
increase seating capacity. Keep the overhang shallow (i.e.; depth less than twice the
opening height) , slope the soffit, and treat the face with sound diffusing elements(or
sound –absorbing material) to prevent echoes.

113
10. Sound-Reinforcing System: Provide a central space just above and slightly in front
of the proscenium opening to accommodate a cluster of loudspeakers. Be sure the
audience has line of sight to the high frequency horns of the cluster. Locate the
control console for the sound system at a central location in the audience seating
area. A far less effective alternative location is the rear of the auditorium in a
separate room which can be opened to allow the operator to attempt to hear the
sound being controlled.
Source: Architectural Acoustics by M. David Egan

114
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCOUSTICS OF A BUILDING
REVERBERATION TIME
• If a hall is to be acoustically satisfactory , it is essential that it should have the right reverberation time.
• The reverberation time should be neither too long nor too short .
• A very short reverberation time makes a room ‘dead’ .On the other hand , a long reverberation time renders
speech unintelligible.
• The optimum value for reverberation time depends on the purpose for which a hall is designed.

115
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCOUSTICS OF A BUILDING

116
REMEDIES
• The reverberation time can be controlled by the suitable choice of building materials and furnishing
materials.
• Since open windows allow the sound energy to flow out of the hall , there should be a limited number of
windows . They may be opened or closed to obtain optimum reverberation time.
• Cardboard sheets, perforated sheets, felt , heavy curtains , thick carpets, etc. are used to increase wall and
floor surface absorption . Therefore, the walls are to be provided with absorptive materials to the required
extent and at suitable places.
• Heavy fold curtains may be used to increase the absorption.
• Covering the floor with carpet also increase the absorption.
• Audience also contribute to absorption of sound . The absorption coefficient of an individual is about 0.45
sabines.
• In order to compensate for an increase in the reverberation time due to an unexpected decrease in audience
strength , upholstered seats are to be provided in the hall.
• Absorption due to an upholstered chair is equivalent to that of an individual.

117
ADEQUATE LOUDNESS
• Sufficient loudness at every point on the hall is important factor for satisfactory hearing.
• Excessive absorption in the hall or lack of reflecting surfaces near the sound source may
lead to decrease in the loudness of the sound.
REMEDIES
• A hard reflecting surface positioned near the sound source improve the loudness.
• Low ceilings are also of help in reflecting the sound energy towards the audience.
• Adjusting the absorptive material in the hall will improve the situation.
• When the hall is large and audience are more , loud speakers are to be installed to obtain
the desired level
• of loudness.

118
FOCUSSING
• Reflecting concave surfaces cause

concentration of reflected sound , creating a
sound of larger intensity at the focal point .
These spots are known as sound foci.
• Such concentrations of sound intensity at

some points lead to deficiency of reflected
sound at other points.
• The spots of sound deficiency are known as • Further , if they are highly reflecting
dead spots . The sound intensity will be low parallel surfaces in the hall , the
at dead spots and inadequate hearing. reflected and direct sound waves may
form standing waves which leads to
uneven distribution of sound in the hall.

119
FOCUSSING
REMEDIES
• The sound foci and dead spots may be

eliminated if curvilinear interiors are
avoided . I f such surfaces are
present , they should be covered by
highly absorptive materials.
• Suitable sound diffusers are to be

installed in the hall to cause even
distribution of sound in the hall.
• A paraboloidal reflecting surface

arranged with the speaker at its focus
is helpful in directing a uniform
reflected beam of sound in the hall.

120
ECHOES
In audio signal processing and acoustics, Echo is a reflection of

sound that arrives at the listener with a delay after the direct
sound. The delay is proportional to the distance of the reflecting
surface from the source and the listener.
Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well, by a

building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. A true
echo is a single reflection of the sound source.
Acoustic phenomenon
Acoustic waves are reflected by walls or other hard surfaces, such

as mountains and privacy fences. The reason of reflection may be
explained as a discontinuity in the propagation medium. This can
be heard when the reflection returns with sufficient magnitude and
delay to be perceived distinctly. When sound, or the echo itself, is
reflected multiple times from multiple surfaces, the echo is
characterized as a reverberation.

121
• The human ear cannot distinguish echo from the original direct
sound if the delay is less than 1/10 of a second. The velocity of REMEDIES
sound in dry air is approximately 343 m/s at a temperature of 25 °C.
Therefore, the reflecting object must be more than 17.2m from the •This defect is avoided
sound source for echo to be perceived by a person located at the by selecting proper shape
source. When a sound produces an echo in two seconds, the for the auditorium.
reflecting object is 343m away. In nature, canyon walls or rock cliffs
facing water are the most common natural settings for hearing •Use of splayed side
echoes. The strength of echo is frequently measured in dB sound walls instead of parallel
pressure level (SPL) relative to the directly transmitted wave. walls greatly reduces the
Echoes may be desirable (as in sonar) or undesirable (as in problem and enhance the
telephone systems). acoustical quality of the
hall
•Echoes may be avoided

by covering the opposite
walls and high ceiling
with absorptive material.
The least distance from the obstacle to hear an echo is 17 m.

122
ECHELON EFFECT
• If a hall has a flight of

steps , with equal width,
the sound waves
reflected from them will
consist of echoes with
regular phase REMEDIES
difference .
• It may be
• These echoes combine remedied by
to produce a musical having steps of
note which will be heard unequal width.
along with the direct
sound . This is called • The steps may be
echelon effect. covered with
proper sound
• It makes the original absorbing
sound unintelligible or materials , for
confusing. example with a
carpet.

123
RESONANCE
•Sound waves are capable of setting

physical vibration in surrounding
objects , such as window panes ,
walls , enclosed air , etc.
•The vibrating objects in turn produce

sound waves .
•The frequency of the forced vibration

may match some frequency of the
sound produced and hence result
in resonance phenomenon.
REMEDIES
•Due to the resonance certain tones of
the original music may get reinforced •The vibrations of bodies may be
that may result in distortion of the suitably damped to eliminate resonance due
original sound. to them by proper maintenance and
selection .

124
ACOUSTIC DESIGN CHARACTERICS:

125
INTIMACY
“Intimacy” refers to the feeling that listeners have of
being physically close to the performing group.
Intimacy is achieved whenever the first reflected
sound reaches the listener less than about 20 ms after
the direct sound.
TEXTURE
Good texture when at least 5 reflection arrive

within 60 ms of direct sound.
BLEND AND ENSEMBLE
Ability to hear entire performing group on the

stage (ensemble) and in audience (blend).

126
CASE STUDY-1
BHARATIYA VIDYA BHAWAN, JAIPUR:
This auditorium is located adjacent to JLN Marg, Jaipur. It is a part of an

educational complex and is used for seminars, conventions, lectures, cultural programs, etc.
The basic layout of the auditorium is fan shaped. The capacity of the auditorium is about 750
people. The stage can be accessed through 4 doors-2 at the rear end and 2 at the side walls. The
width of each step is 1500 mm.
CALCULATIONS:
Capacity of Auditorium: 750 persons

Floor Area of Auditorium: 650 sq.m.
Height of auditorium = 7.5 m
Volume of auditorium = 4875 cu.m.

127
Reverberation time without acoustical Materials used:
materials:
• On side walls: wooden panelling
T= 0.16V/A • On rear wall: non woven fabric (carpet)
Where, V= volume • On floor: carpet
A= total absorbing power • On floor below seats: concrete
• On ceiling: Gypsum Board
Calculation of A: • On seats: upholstery
1. For wall (painted): 675 x 0.017= 11.47

Area= (510+180-15) sq. m.
S1= 0.017
2. For floor (concrete): 650 x 0.01= 6.5

Area= 650 sq. m.
S2= 0.01
3. For ceiling (concrete): 650 x 0.01= 6.5

Area= 650 sq. m.
S3= 0.01
T= 0.16 x 4875/ 24.47= 31.8 sec

128
Reverberation time with acoustical materials:
Calculation of A:
1. For side walls (wooden panelling): = 510 x 0.17 = 86.7

Area= (34.5 x 7.5 x 2) – (2 x 1.5 x 2.5) =517.5 - 7.5= 510 sq.m.
S1= 0.17
For rear wall (non woven carpet): = 180 x 0.63 = 113.4
Area= (25 x 7.5) – (2 x 1.5 x 2.5) =187.5 - 7.5= 180 sq.m.
S1= 0.63
2. For floor (carpet): 462.5 x 0.1= 46.25

Area= (650 – 187.5) = 462.5 sq. m.
S2= 0.1
For floor (concrete): 187.5 x 0.01= 1.875
Area= 750 x 0.5 x 0.5= 187.5 sq. m.
S2= 0.01
3. For ceiling (gypsum board): 650 x 0.05= 32.5

Area= 650 sq. m.
S3= 0.05
4. Occupied seats (375 in no.): 375 x 0.5= 187.5

S4= 0.5/ seat
Unoccupied seats (375 in no.): 375 x 0.7= 262.5 Maharana Pratap Auditorium:
S5= 0.7/ seat Basic Layout
T= 0.16 x 4875/ 730.725=1.06 sec

129
PANELLING ON SIDE
WALLS
MAHARANA PRATAP AUDITORIUM ROOF ACCORDING TO ACOUSTICS
WALL, SEATING AND ROOF

UPHOLSTERED SEATS TREATMENT ON REAR WALL
ACCORDING TO
ACOUSTICS

130
CASE STUDY-2
TRIVENI KALA SANGAM, DELHI:
This auditorium is located on Tansen Marg, New Delhi. It is a part of a complex

for teaching of visual and performing arts.
The basic layout of the auditorium is rectangular. It’s mainly used for cultural
performances. The capacity of the auditorium is about 180 people. The green
rooms are located in the basement which can be accessed from the back stage. The
access to the auditorium is through 2 doors at the rear. The stage height is about
1150 mm and the distance between the stage and first row is about 2400mm. Each
step is 900 mm wide.

131
CALCULATIONS:
Capacity of Auditorium: 180 persons Calculation of A:
Floor Area of Auditorium: 208 sq.m. 1. For wall (painted): 305 x 0.017= 5.185
Area= 315- (2 x 2 x 2.5)= 305 sq. m.
Height of auditorium = 7 m S1= 0.017
Volume of auditorium = 1456 cu.m. 2. For floor (concrete): 208 x 0.01= 2.08
Area= 208 sq. m.
Reverberation time without acoustical S2= 0.01
materials:
T= 0.16V/A 3. For ceiling (concrete): 208 x 0.01= 2.08
Area= 208 sq. m.
Where, V= volume S3= 0.01
A= total absorbing power T= 0.16 x 1456/ 9.34= 24.94 sec

132
Reverberation time with acoustical materials:
Materials used:
Calculation of A:
• On walls: wooden paneling
1. For wall (wooden panelling): 305 x 0.17= 51.85 • On floor: carpet
Area= 305 sq. m. • On ceiling: plastered
S1= 0.17 • On seats: upholstery
• On stage: wooden flooring
2. For floor (carpet): 208 x 0.1= 20.8
Area= 208 sq. m.
S2= 0.1
3. For ceiling (plaster): 208 x 0.07= 14.56

Area= 208 sq. m.
S3= 0.07
4. Occupied seats (90 in no.): 90 x 0.5= 45

S4= 0.5/ seat
5. Unoccupied seats (90 in no.): 90 x 0.7= 63

S5= 0.7/ seat
T= 0.16 x 1456/ 195.2=1.19 sec

133
UPHOLSTERED SEATS
WOODEN PANELLING ON THE WALLS
CARPET ON THE FLOOR

134
PLAN AUDITORIUM- TRIVENI KALA SANGAM,
DELHI

135
CASE STUDY-3
PLAN

136
SECTION
Calculations
This absorbing power is divided
capacity of auditorium-580 persons
among-ceiling, flooring, wall(sides and rear).
area of auditorium-450 sq.m
for flooring (carpet)-a =450x0.1 =45
vol. occupied /person-5 cu.m.
for ceiling (plaster)-a =450x0.07 =31.5
for wall-sides (wooden panelling)(50%)-a
=>Vol. of auditorium = 5x580 =2900cu.m
= (90x0.1)-(7.5x .04) =8.97
ht. of auditorium = vol./area
rear (wooden panelling)-(144x0.1)-(1X .04) =14.36
= 2900/450=6.4m
for seats (75% occupied)-a = 400x0.7=280
total a = 379.78
Considering reverberation time of 1.2sec
According to sabin's formula
t=0.16v/a , where t=reverbaration time
a= total absorbing power
v=vol. => (0.16x2900)/a=1.2
a =386.6

137
CONCLUSION
As indicated by the case studies above, the acoustics plays a crucial role in an auditorium and it is
imperative to make a space acoustically efficient so that the spectators or participants enjoy the
sound and it is not irksome to them. The acoustic efficiency of a space must be considered while
designing a space itself and such spaces like coupled spaces, etc which add to acoustical defects
should be avoided as far as possible. Thereafter suitable material application and treatments
should be done to obtain optimum level of reverberation. While doing so, one must consider the
following aspects:
• Interior Acoustical Defects

• Exterior sound isolation
• Acoustical characteristics of materials
• Sound Amplification

138
Design Application
In your Studio design Problem, you may incorporate the below mentioned
requirements in a Convention Center.
The proposal would consist of mainly:
1. Convention & Exhibition Center: Would broadly include the auditorium,

meeting rooms, and divisible exhibition space.
2. Hotel Complex: The hotel complex would be a deluxe room facility, four star
categories or above, that would include recreational facilities, health facilities,
Spa, etc
3. Retail/ Entertainment Space: A commercial space will be there comprising of

retail area with lifestyle shopping, food courts, etc.

139
TENTATIVE
REQUIREMENTS:
• AUDITORIUM: • RESIDENTIAL COMPONENT:
• ADMINISTRATION: _ Foyer _ Reception
_ Reception _ Seating Area _ Lobby
_ Lobby _ Stage Area _ Rooms
_ Waiting Area _ Backstage Area _ Suites
_ Director Office _ Projection Room _ Dining
_ General Staff _ Green Rooms (Male/Female) _ Kitchen
_ Manager _ Banquet Facilities _ Pantry
_ Assistant Manager _ Facilities _ Store
_ Accounts Department _ Common facilities
_ Estate Department • VIP AREAS:
_ Meeting Room _ Foyer • RECREATIONAL AREA
_ Information Counter _ Lounge _ Gymnasium
_ Cafe _ VIP lounge formal/ informal _ Swimming pool
_ Staff Dining _ VIP dining _ Health club
_ Kitchen _ Facilities _ Shopping Arcade
_ Pantry _ Recreation Centre
_ Store • CONFERENCE HALLS /
_ Facilities SEMINAR ROOMS: • MULTIPURPOSE HALL / BANQUET HALL
_ Foyer • EXHIBITION AREA
_ Conference Rooms • OPEN AIR THEATRE
_ Pantry Area • RESTAURANT / FOOD COURT
_ Facilities • PARKING AREA

140
As indicated in the case studies, the acoustics of the auditorium plays a crucial role while designing such a
space. The research work and analysis done in this report would help you to incorporate suitable acoustic
measures in the auditorium to be proposed for your Design Studio project, that is,
A CONVENTION CENTER.
The key points to be considered and applied while designing an acoustically

efficient space are listed below:
• To avoid echoes, the reflective surfaces like especially the rear wall should be
acoustically treated.
• Flutter echo in parallel walls should be prevented by providing sound absorbing

material on the walls which are closer to the source of the sound.
• Coupled defect caused by connected spaces should be avoided by proper

acoustic separation or by providing appropriate acoustic material to achieve the
same reverberation in both the spaces.
• Sound amplification system should be used if the volume is greater than 425
cu.m. and the distance between the source and the listener is greater than 12 m.
The attenuation of sound in an auditorium varies with the absorption, volume,
directivity and reinforcement of sound provided. Therefore the distances over
which the speech can be heard will depend on the design of the hall or auditorium
and the extent to which the sounds are reinforced and masked.

141
• The voice during speech, etc. produces largely directional sounds with significant
reduction in sound power outside an arc of 135°. So the seating should fall within
this angle.
• At 90° to the side of the speaker, sound power reduces by 1-2 dB at mid
frequencies and by 6 dB at higher ones. At 180° when the speaker faces away from
the audience, sound shadowing effect becomes prominent and these losses
increase up to three times.
• The ceiling is the main reflecting surface in such a space and sound absorbing
material should not be used on it. Generally the central area of the ceiling plays a
vital role in sound projection over a major portion of the audience so it may be
deliberately profiled to improve projection. For this purpose if needed angle
reflectors may be provided and the soffit of the balcony should also be designed
accordingly to give local reinforcement in these distant parts.
• The side walls adjacent to the source should preferably be angled to reflect
sound towards the audience. The angles subtended by the sound rays at the side
wall surfaces should be reduced to avoid sound concentration, etc. by using
serrated walls or reverse splayed panels, for example.
• Concave wall surfaces or domes result in sound focusing so such surfaces should
preferably be made absorbent.

142
• Suitable ray diagrams should be made to identify the pattern of sound waves and
to ensure application of suitable absorbing material to reduce the defects and
hence attain an optimum sound level for each set of audience seated in the
auditorium. Only sound reflections that is early reflections with <28 ft. path
difference from sound source are useful and contribute to a positive interference
of sound.
• The optimum reverberation time for an auditorium is 1.4 to 1.9 at mid

frequencies (500-1000 Hz), 1.3 at 125 Hz and 0.8 at higher frequencies (4000 Hz).
So to achieve the same materials with suitable absorption coefficients should be
used. At times a portion of the ceiling area may also be sound absorbing to control
reverberation.
_ For low frequency sound absorption materials like wood paneling, gypsum
boards, etc. can be used.
_ For medium frequency absorption, porous materials or thin materials with air
gaps are useful.
_ For high frequency absorption, heavy cotton panels with air gaps, glass wool, etc,
and thick carpet on floor can be used.

143
• The volume per seat should be 200 to 240 cu. ft. or 5.6 to 6 cu. m.
• Use irregular sound reflecting surfaces like sunken panels, splays and undulations
to enhance useful reflections.
• Carpet all aisles except the front of the stage. Do not carpet the seating areas.
• Use fabric upholstered seats.
• Use balconies to reduce the distance to the farthest row of seats and /or to
increase seating capacity. Keep the overhang shallow (i.e.; depth less than twice
the opening height), slope the soffit, and treat the face with sound diffusing
elements (or sound –absorbing material) to prevent echo.

144
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
BOOKS:
• ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS BY • NOISE CONTROL MANUAL BY SOUND SMART

M.DAVID EGAN
• NOISE CONTROL MANUAL BY CERATIN TEED
• MASTER HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICS BY
EVEREST, F. ALTON • HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICAL MEASUREMENTS
AND NOISE CONTROL BY CYRIL M.
• TIME SAVER STANDARD FOR HARRIS
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN DATA BY
JOSEPH DE CHIARA AND JOHN HANCOCK • NOISE CONTROL IN BUILDINGS BY CYRIL M.
CALLENDER HARRIS
• ACOUSTICS BY LEO L. BERANEKS • ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS BY LISA EGNER
• CONFERENCE, CONVENTION AND WEB SITES:

EXHIBITION FACILITIES BY FRED LAWSON
• WWW. WIKIPEDIA.COM
E-BOOKS: • WWW.ACOUSTICS.COM
• AUDITORIUM ACOUSTICS BY ARTHUR • WWW.SOUNDPROOFINGTIPS.COM
NOXON • WWW.TECHNOACOUSTICS.COM
• AUDITORIUM ACOUSTICS - CHALLENGES • WWW.TRADEINDIA.COM
AND SOLUTIONS BY M. RUSTAD • WWW.SOUNDZERO.COM
• WWW.ACOUSTIC FIRST.COM

145

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Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Later on we relate dB to the phon and the sone(related to loudness). But first, to get a taste

The difference in decibels between the two is defined to be

10 log (P2/P1) dB where the log is to base 10.

10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 2 = 3 dB.

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB

10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 1,000,000 = 60 dB.

This example shows one feature of decibel scales that is useful

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Phons 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

A-weighting network: Generally, the sensitivity of human hearing is restricted to the

C-weighted network: The C-weighted network provides unweighted microphone sensitivity