Excretion

SOS-Objectives
Excretion
 The process by which metabolic waste products and
toxic materials are removed from the body of an
organism.

Metabolism
The sum total of all the chemical reactions taking place
in living cells in order to keep an organism alive.
Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism

Catabolism
Chemical reactions in which complex substances are
broken down into simpler ones.
Eg. Tissue respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O +6CO2 + 2898 kJ
Eg. Deamination of proteins and amino acids
Anabolism
• Chemical reactions in which simpler molecules are built up
into complex substances.
• Eg. Photosynthesis
• Eg. Formation of new proteins from amino acids
• Eg. Conversion of glucose into glycogen in the liver and
muscles

Importance of Excretion
Metabolic reactions produce waste products which are
harmful if accumulated in the body.
Excretory product Excretory Remarks
organ
Carbon dioxide Lungs Gas in expired air
Mineral salts Kidneys Constituents of urine
Nitrogenous waste products
- Mainly urea
-(from deamination of proteins) Constituents of sweat, only
- Creatinine Skin in small quantities for
-(from muscle tissue breakdown) nitrogenous waste
products
- Uric acid
-(from breakdown of nuclear
materials)
Excess water Kidney Main constituent of urine
Skin Main constituent of sweat
Lungs Water vapour in expired air
Bile pigments Liver Via the intestine
(from haemoglobin breakdown)
Kidneys
 Contains a lot of nephrons which remove urea and excess water and
heat from the blood to form urine
 Responsible for osmoregulation

Ureter
 Narrow tube through which urine flows from each kidney to the urinary
bladder (by peristalsis)

Urinary bladder
 A hollow, distensible muscular bag which stores urine temporarily

Renal pelvis
 The enlarged portion of the ureter inside the kidney

Sphincter muscle
 Contracts or relaxes to control the flow of urine into the urethra

Urethra
 Duct through which urine flows from the bladder to the exterior
 Kidneys
 A pair of dark red, bean-shaped organs embedded in a mass of
fat in the abdominal cavity
 They are attached to the dorsal body wall, one on each side of
the vertebral column.
 The left kidney is slightly higher than the right one.

Each kidney is covered by an

outer layer of protective cells
called the fibrous capsule.

It has two main regions:

a. Cortex: the outer dark red
region.
b. Medulla: the inner thicker
pale red region. In man, it
consists of 12-16 conical
structures, the pyramids.
 Structure of a Kidney Tubule –
The Nephron

 The functional unit of the kidney.

 About 1 million of them in each

kidney.

 Each is about 3 cm long

Kidney Tubule - The Nephron
 Each kidney tubule (nephron)
begins in the cortex as a cup-
like structure called the renal
(Bowman’s) capsule.
 The capsule leads into the first
(proximal) convoluted tubule.
 It then straightens out as it
passes into the medulla, make
a U-turn and passes back into
the cortex where it becomes
coiled again (second or distal
convoluted tubule).
Kidney Tubule - The Nephron

 It then opens into a

collecting tubule/duct and
eventually opens into the
renal pelvis.

 The U-shaped portion of

the tubule in the medulla
is known as the loop of
Henle.
Kidney Tubule - The Nephron
 Blood enters the kidney by the renal
artery which gives off numerous
branches or arterioles.
 Each branch breaks up into a mass of
blood capillaries in the renal capsule.
 This mass of blood capillaries is called
the glomerulus.
 The renal capsule with its glomerulus
is called the renal / Malpighian
corpuscle.
 Blood leaving the glomerulus enters
blood capillaries surrounding the
tubule.
 These blood capillaries then unite to
form venules, which in turn join to form
a branch of the renal vein.
 Associated blood vessels

Renal Arteries Renal Veins

Bring oxygenated blood Take away deoxygenated
blood (from which urea,
containing urea, excess
excess water and heat
water and heat to kidneys have been removed) from
the kidneys.
 How blood enters the kidney tubule

3 Arterioles
2 Renal artery further divide
branches into 3 into a mass of
many arterioles blood
capillaries
(glomerulus)
1 Blood enters 4
the kidney via 2 4 Blood leaves
the renal artery Malpighian
1 corpuscle and
enters tubule
6 5
7
branch of
renal vein 5 Blood
7 Blood exits
the kidney capillaries
via the renal unite to form
vein venules
6 Venules join to
form renal vein

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. April 26, 2021 14
Urine Formation
Two main processes are involved:

 A. Ultrafiltration of small molecules from

the blood.
 B. Selective reabsorption of useful
materials.
 A. Ultrafiltration
 Blood passes from the renal artery into the
glomeruli in the renal capsules.
 Mechanical filtration occurs in each glomerulus.
 Blood plasma is forced out of the glomerular
blood capillaries into the renal capsule.
 The afferent arteriole that brings blood into the
glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole
that carries blood away.
 A high pressure is built up in the glomerulus,
squeezing the blood through two living
membranes: the capillary wall of the glomerulus
(partially permeable membrane) and the inner
wall of the renal capsule.
 It is this blood pressure that provides the main
force required for the filtration process.
Why is it called Ultrafiltration?
 It is caused by very high blood pressure.
 The membrane around the glomerular
blood capillaries is like a very fine filter.
 Only very small molecules are filtered off
the blood. These include water, mineral
salts, glucose and urea.
 Most proteins and fats are too big, so they
stay in the blood, together with the blood
cells.
 Ultrafiltration
 In human, the kidneys filter about 60
litres of blood an hour, and it takes only
5 minutes to filter an amount which is
equal to the body’s entire blood supply
(5 litres).
 The filtration process produces about
7.5 litres of glomerulus filtrate an hour,
and this liquid contains not only urea,
but many useful substances (e.g.
glucose).
 If all of this is excreted, the body would
lose most of its water and soluble food
supplies in a few hours.
 However, this does not happen because
99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed.
 B. Selective
Reabsorption

 This takes
place in the
kidney tubules /
nephrons.

 The useful
materials are
taken back into
the blood
stream through
the capillaries
which surround
the tubules.
Selective Reabsorption
Selective Description
reabsorption at
Proximal Convoluted • These include all the glucose, amino acids and most
Tubule mineral salts.
• by diffusion and active transport.
• Most of the water is reabsorbed by osmosis back into
the blood stream (through surrounding blood
capillaries).
the Loop of Henle and • Some of the water is reabsorbed back into the blood
Distal Convoluted stream (through surrounding blood capillaries).
Tubule
the Distal Convoluted • Some salts are reabsorbed.
Tubule
the • Some water is reabsorbed.
Conducting Duct
Selective Reabsorption

 Excess water, mineral salts, and

nitrogenous wastes (e.g. urea, uric acid
and creatinine) pass out of the collecting
duct into the renal pelvis as urine.
 Normal constituents of urine

Per 100 cm3

Water 96.0g

Mineral salts (mainly sodium chloride) 1.8g

Urea 2.0g

Other nitrogenous substances 0.2g

Total 100.0g
Composition of urine
Varies depending on several factors:
 Rich protein diet higher content of urea
 Heavy sugary food in the diet  some sugar in urine
 Larger intake of fluid  urine lighter in colour ; more
urine
 Cold weather (less sweat)  more urine
 Salty food in the diet  excess salt excreted in urine

Abnormal situation
 Sugar diabetes (diabetes mellitus) – large amounts
of glucose in urine
Kidneys as Osmoregulators
 The water potential of the blood has to be kept relatively
constant.
 If the blood plasma is too dilute, water will enter the blood
cells by osmosis and the blood cells will swell and burst.
 If the blood plasma is too concentrated, water will leave
the blood cells by osmosis and the blood cells will
become dehydrated and shrink (may be fatal).
 The water potential of the blood depends on the amount
of water and salts in the plasma.
 Kidneys help to regulate the water or salt concentration in
the blood, thus maintaining a constant water potential in
the body.
 Osmoregulation by kidneys –
an example of Homeostasis
 If the water content of the blood is lower than usual (eg. through
heavy perspiration), the additional quantities of water needed are
taken in through the tubule. How?
 Hypothalamus of the brain produces vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone
(ADH).
 Dehydration of the body is detected by the hypothalamus.
 The pituitary gland is stimulated to release ADH into bloodstream to
increase the water reabsorption by the kidney tubules.
 Water content of the blood is thus restored.
 Urine production drops and urine becomes more concentrated.
 If the blood becomes too diluted (eg. large intake of water), the
secretion of ADH is inhibited.
 The tubules will reabsorb less water.
 Urine production increases and urine becomes less concentrated.
Summary of the Kidney Functions
1. Excretion of metabolic wastes, especially the nitrogenous
wastes (e.g. urea), & excess water, mineral salts.
2. Regulation of composition of the blood plasma – by the
selective reabsorption of useful substances (salts and water)
along the kidney tubules.
3. Regulating the water content
4. Regulating the salt content.
 If there is too much sodium chloride in the plasma, less of them
is reabsorbed from the glomerulus filtrate.
5. Regulating the pH of the blood to be around pH 7.3 to 7.4 by
the exchange of ions when the acidity or alkalinity of the
blood tends to rise.
Kidney Failure
 High blood pressure and diabetes are
common causes of kidney failures.
 A person can still lead a normal life if only
one kidney fails to function.
 But if both kidneys fail to work, urea and
other wastes will accumulate in the blood.
The patient can die unless prompt medical
treatment is given.
 Treatment: Dialysis or kidney transplant.
 Dialysis or Kidney Machine
 What the kidney performs by ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption, a
kidney machine performs in one step – diffusion.
 Blood is drawn from an artery in the patient’s arm and allowed to be
pumped through the tubing in the dialysis machine.
 The tubing is bathed in a dialysis fluid which contains the same
concentration of essential substances (e.g. mineral salts) as the blood,
but without metabolic waste products.
 The walls of the tubing are partially permeable.
 Substances pass from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
along a concentration gradient through this membrane
 Since there is no urea, uric acid and creatinine in the dialysis fluid, they
diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid. Excess water and mineral
salts also diffuse out of the tubing. These waste products are thus
removed from the blood.
 Big molecules like proteins and blood cells remain in the blood.
 Dialysis or Kidney Machine
Other points to take note:

 The tubing is narrow, long and coiled to increase the surface

area to volume ratio. This speeds up the rate of exchange of
substances between the blood and the dialysis fluid.
 The direction of blood flow is opposite to the flow of the dialysis
fluid. This maintains the concentration/diffusion gradient for the
removal of waste products.
 The filtered blood is then returned to a vein in the patient’s arm.
 The patient needs to be treated about 2-3 times a week. Each
treatment takes several hours.
 Exchange of Substances between the Blood
and the Dialysis Fluid
Dialysis fluid contains the same Filtered
Patient’s blood blood is
enters dialysis concentration of essential substances
machine as blood. No metabolic wastes present returned to
dialysis machine
the patient
partially dialysis
permeable fluid
membrane
patient’s blood filtered blood
1 5

4 2
3
dialysis fluid with dialysis fluid
waste products urea red blood cell
molecule protein essential
molecule mineral salt

Removal of Blood flows in the opposite Concentration

metabolic direction to flow of dialysis fluid gradient set up
waste products between dialysis
from the blood fluid and blood
Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. April 26, 2021 32
 How Is Blood Cleaned in a Dialysis Machine?

artery 1
1 Blood is drawn 2 Blood is pumped
from an artery in through a tubing
the patient’s arm to the dialysis
machine
vein 6 2
6 The filtered
dialysis tubing
blood is 3 The tubing is bathed
returned to a in a special dialysis
4
fluid and the tubing
vein in the pump
is semi-permeable
dialysis
patient’s arm fluid
5
5 Larger molecules filtered 4 Small molecules
(e.g. plates and blood (e.g. urea) and
blood cells) metabolic waste
fresh dialysis dialysis products diffuse
remain in the fluid 3 machine
tubing out of the tubing

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. April 26, 2021 33
 Excretion
is carried out by

Excretory Organs

Lungs Kidneys Liver Skin

Excrete carbon dioxide Excrete bile via Produces and removes

and water (water vapour) the intestines sweat containing waste
products, e.g. creatinine

Structure Functions

Excretion Osmoregulation Maintenance of

composition
of blood plasma

Kidney dialysis

In the case of kidney failure, blood is drawn out, cleaned

in a dialysis machine and returned to the patient
Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. April 26, 2021 34