Philosophy 103

Linguistics 103

Yet, still, Even further More

Introductory Logic:
Critical Thinking
Dr. Robert Barnard
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 Last Time:
• Laws of Thought: Philosophical
Issues about the status of
logical laws.
• Meaning
– Types of Meaning: Cognitive/Emotive
– Intension vs. Extension
– Ambiguity and Precision
– Names vs. Descriptions
 Plan for Today
• Talk about Definitions
• Time Permitting: Return to the issue of logical
form…
 Definitions:
• Parts of a Definition
– Definiendum: The word or term or
concept to be defined
– Definiens: the word or group of words
which are used to define (assign a
meaning to) another term or concept
 Types of Definitions
• Lexical
• Precising
• Theoretical
• Persuasive
 Lexical Definition
A Lexical Definition reports or
describes how a term is actually used
in a language.

Sometimes a term has more than one

definition.-
 The ‘Idea’ of a definition
i·de·a       (ī-dē'ə)  
n.   Something, such as a thought or conception, that potentially or actually
exists in the mind as a product of mental activity.
1. An opinion, conviction, or principle: has some strange political ideas.
2. A plan, scheme, or method.
3. The gist of a specific situation; significance: The idea is to finish the project
under budget.
4. A notion; a fancy. There are at least 3 specific
5. Music A theme or motif. philosophical definitions!!!
6. Philosophy
1. In the philosophy of Plato, an archetype of which a corresponding being in
phenomenal reality is an imperfect replica.
2. In the philosophy of Kant, a concept of reason that is transcendent but
nonempirical.
3. In the philosophy of Hegel, absolute truth; the complete and ultimate product of
reason.
7. Obsolete A mental image of something remembered.
 Precising Definition
A Precising Definition is designed to reduce the
vagueness of a term in use. This is a kind of
stipulative definition.

Example: Tom is rich.

(What does ‘rich’ mean?)

…we might extend the lexical definition by adding that

here ‘rich’ means “has more than 5 million
dollars.” This makes the term PRECISE in our context.
 Theoretical Definition
A THEORETICAL DEFINITION assigns (stipulates) a
meaning to a term by suggesting a theory that
gives a certain characterization of the entities
the theory denotes.

Theoretical definitions are common in

mathematics and science. They fix the meaning
of a term for a specific use.
 Examples: Theoretical Definitions
Geometry: “Parallel straight lines are straight
lines which, being in the same plane and being
produced indefinitely in both directions, do not
meet one another in either direction. ” (Euclid
Elements I, Def 23)

Chemistry: “An electron is a stable fundamental

atomic particle with almost no mass and a
negative charge.”
 Pursuasive Definition
A Persuasive Definition is a definition designed
to produce a favorable or unfavorable
emotional attitude toward whatever is
denoted by the definiendum.

Persuasive definition relies upon both cognitive

and emotive meaning. Since they exceed the
scope of cognitive meaning, persuasive
definitions are primarily rhetorical.
 Persuasive Definition Examples
Neutral Definition:

Abortion: In medicine, an abortion is the

premature exit of the products of
conception (the fetus, fetal membranes,
and placenta) from the uterus. It is the loss
of a pregnancy and does not refer to why
that pregnancy was lost.
Unfavorable Emotive attitude definition:
Abortion: The willful murder of innocent unborn
children, often performed to avoid the personal and
societal consequences of wanton sexual activity.
Favorable Emotive attitude definition:
Abortion: The constitutionally protected act of
medically resolving a pregnancy for the purpose of
restoring, preserving or protecting the physical or
mental health of a woman. The procedure is
especially useful in protecting women from
potentially debilitating consequences of rape and
incest.
 Some Tools for Developing
Definitions…
• Point to a case of the Definiendum
(ostention)
• Specify the INTENSION of the term.
• Enumerate (in part or whole) the
EXTENSION of the term.
• Make the term precise by tracing its
place in a taxonomy.
 Ostensive (pointing) Definition
By “Dog” I mean: 

By “Flux Capacitor” I mean: 

 Definition by Intension
Here we indicate the characteristics or qualities
that the definiendum connotes.

Square: regular figure on a Euclidian plane bounded by

four sides of equal length and four right angles.

Fish: cold-blooded, aquatic vertebrates, with gills,

commonly fins, and often an elongated body covered
with scales.
 Definition by Enumeration
(extension)

Even numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 …

Blue: the common feature of blueberries, the

sky on a clear day, some people’s eyes, the
ocean in some places, …
 Taxonomic Definition by
Genus and Differentia
This sort of definition relies upon the fact that our
concepts are often related by being more or less
general. We have broad terms for general types and
then other words for specific sub-types or case
sunder the general heading.
• The GENUS is the general type
• The DIFFERENTIA is the characteristic that marks a
specific sub-class or case.
• A Genus and Differentia together define a SPECIES.
 Genus and Definition Examples
Term Genus Difference
DAUGHTER = Offspring + Female
PUPPY = Dog + Young
STUDENT = Person + Enrolled in
School
ICE = Water + Frozen
PRESIDENT = Political Leader + American
HOUSE = Structure + Free-standing ,
Permanent,
Residential
SOCRATES = Human Being + Teacher of Plato
 Definitions and Meanings
• Some terms have meaning which we record or
report with a lexical definition.
• Some terms have more than one meaning, we
use precising definition to stipulate which
meaning is relevant.
• Some terms are given meaning by a definition
(ostensive, enumerative, theoretical)
• Some definitions contain emotive content that
can be confused with cognitive content.
Questions?
NEW TOPIC: LOGICAL FORM
 Good vs. Bad Arguments
• Deductive Validity – IF the premises are true
THEN the conclusion MUST be true.
• Inductive Strength – IF the premises are true
THEN the conclusion WILL BE PROBABLE.
• Deductive Soundness – the deductive
argument is valid AND premises are all true
• Inductive Cogency—The inductive argument
is strong and the premises are all true
 Deduction and Argument Form
• In order to talk about validity we need to
come back to the idea of an argument form.
• Form is the STRUCTURE of the argument.
• The Structure can either be good or bad. It
can either do its job or not.
• A good structure will allow the premises to
support the conclusion.
 Review: Standard Form of an
Argument
• Sample Argument:
Socrates is mortal because all men are mortal

• Standard form isolates conclusion and lists

ALL premises.
1) All men are mortal (given premise)
2) Socrates is a man (implied premise)
3) Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)
 Logical Form of an Argument
• Determining Logical FORM:
If Al likes Sally then If -- P -- then
Al will ask Sally out -- Q--

Al likes Sally -- P –

Therefore Al will ask Therefore -- Q --

Sally out

We Determine FORM by isolating the logical

structure of the argument.
 Another example of logical form
[R] Every school teaches religion and religious
beliefs. This can be seen by the fact that either
a school is religious or not. And if it isn’t it
either teaches a form of secular humanism or
teaches atheism by teaching nothing. Both
humanism and atheism therefore teach
specific beliefs about religion.
 Isolate Conclusion FIRST
Every school teaches religion and religious
beliefs. This can be seen by the fact that
either a school is religious or not. And if it isn’t
openly religious then it either teaches a form
of secular humanism or teaches atheism by
teaching nothing. Both humanism and
atheism therefore teach specific beliefs about
religion.
 LIST PREMISES
This can be seen by the fact that either a school
is religious or not.
And if it isn’t openly religious then it either
teaches a form of secular humanism or
teaches atheism by teaching nothing.
Both humanism and atheism therefore teach
specific beliefs about religion.
Every school teaches religion and religious
beliefs.
 CLARIFY PREMISES
1. Every school is openly Religious or not-openly
Religious.
2. If a school is not openly religious then it either
teaches secular humanism or teaches atheism
by teaching nothing.
3. Both humanism and atheism are specific
beliefs about religion.
SO…
4. Every school teaches religion and religious
beliefs.
Add in an obvious assumed premise…
1. Every school is openly Religious or not-openly Religious.
2. All openly Religious schools teach religion and religious
beliefs
3. Both humanism and atheism are specific beliefs about religion.
(re-ordered).
4. If a school is not openly religious then it either teaches secular
humanism or teaches atheism by teaching nothing.
SO…

5. Every school teaches religion and religious beliefs.

 SUBSTITUTE FOR TERMS
1. If S(chool) then R(eligious) or not-R.
2. If R, then T(eaches religion)
3. If not-R then H (teach humanism) or A (teaches
atheism) (old 4 moved up)
4. If H then T and If A then T

SO…

5. Every S is T
 Clarify
1. If S then (R or not-R).
2. If R, then T
3. If not-R then (H or A)
4. (If H then T) and (If A then T)

SO…

5. If S then T (re-stated ‘if x then y’ = ‘all x are y’

 Issues !!!
• Is the form valid?
• Is the analysis here correct? (Is Religious belief
the same as belief about religion?)
• Are the premises true (soundness?)
 Validity and Form
KEY POINT:
VALIDITY is a property of FORM

• If a given argument is valid, then ANY argument

with the SAME FORM must also be VALID.
• Likewise: if a given argument is not valid, then
ANY argument with the SAME FORM must also
be INVALID.
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