Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Wireless
Communications
 Learning objectives
 To introduce the concept of wireless media
 To know the frequency spectrum for wireless communications
 To review the principles of coding and modulation schemes
 To understand the limitations of wireless communication
 To study the wireless transmission and switching technologies
 To study the diversity techniques for wireless systems

To discuss the performance improvement techniques for
wireless communication systems.

To know the generations of cellular systems
 Digital communications
 Digital communication refers to the transmission of a
sequence of digital messages (a bit stream) or a digitized
analog signal.
 Digital messages are either represented by a sequence of
pulses by means of a line code, or by a limited set of analog
wave forms.
 Digital communications (Contd..)
 Transmitting data in digital form allows
 greater signal processing capability,
 errors caused by random processes can be detected and
corrected,
 digital signals can also be sampled instead of continuously
monitored,
 multiplexing of multiple digital signals is much simpler to the
multiplexing of analog signals,
 enhancing quality of the signal,
 modification of the signal as per the network and application
requirements
Wireless communication system
 Wireless communication limitations
 Bandwidth
 Mobile phones and PDAs have smaller memory, and it is hard
to read large documents on them and may require information
of lesser bandwidth.
 Larger computing devices connected in wireless environments
may require more bandwidth information since there is no
constraint on the screen and the memory.

Available LAN device bandwidth is maximum 55Mbps, whereas users
demand is 10Gbps. This imbalance forces to have a clever wireless
networking environments.
 Wireless communication limitations
(Contd..)
 Frequency spectrum
 Dynamic channel allocation schemes can be used to optimize
the frequency usage of the given wireless communication area.
 Power

A mobile node transmitter power in a wireless local environment
ranges from 230 mW to 2 W in 1850-1880 MHz range (uplink) that
covers a distance of 8 km.
 Wireless and Radio
 Radio may be defined as
 A method of communicating over a distance by
modulating electromagnetic waves by means of an
intelligence bearing-signal and radiating these
modulated waves by means of transmitter and a
receiver.
 A device or pertaining to a device, that transmits or
receives electromagnetic waves in the frequency
bands that are between 10kHz and 3000 GHz.
 Voice over radio
 Early 20th century, there were several experiments
transmitting the voice data over the radio.
 1914 : First voice over radio transmission.
 1920 : Mobile receivers installed in police cars in Detroit, USA.
 1930 : Mobile transmitters developed; radio equipment occupied
most of police car trunk.
 1935 : Frequency modulation (FM) demonstrated by Armstrong.
 1940s : Majority of police systems converted to FM.
 Birth of mobile telephony
 Mobile telephone started gaining importance in 1940s.
Developments of mobile telephony in chronological
order are as follows.
 1946 - First interconnection of mobile users to public
switched telephone network (PSTN).
 1960s - Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS)
introduced; supports full-duplex, autodial, and auto-
trunking.
 Wireless and Infrared
 IR waves are longer than visible light waves and shorter
than radio waves. It cannot pass through walls or
ceilings, but it can bounce off flat surfaces and pass
through open door ways.
 Uses of infrared wireless
 IR used in PANs, specific wireless LAN, impractical in
mobile; used only to implement fixed wireless networks.
IR connected devices
 Technologies in Digital Wireless
Communication
 Source coding: Source coding deals with the time and
amplitude discretization of the analog source signal.
 Waveform coding
 Linear Predictive Coding (LPC)
 Waveform coding
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Differential PCM (DPCM)
 Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM)
 Delta Modulation (DM)
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 PCM encoding process
 Differential PCM (DPCM)
 DPCM predicts the next sample based on the last few
decoded samples. This minimizes mean squared error of
prediction.
 Good prediction results in a reduction in the dynamic
range needed to code the prediction residual and hence a
reduction in the bit rate.
 It can use non-uniform quantization or variable length
codes.
 Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM)

 ADPCM is the same as the DPCM except that, unlike in

the DPCM where the predictor coefficients are constants.
 In ADPCM, the predictor coefficients are updated at
each sampling instant and therefore are a function of
time.
 Delta Modulation (DM)

 The DM is an extreme case of the DPCM and may be

regarded as the one-bit DPCM
 A single bit is used to code the signal at each sampling
instant.
 Linear Predictive Coding (LPC)
 In the Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) technique, the
human vocal tract is modeled and the parameters of the
model are estimated based on the individual speech
signal.
 These parameters are coded and transmitted to the sink.

The sink employs a replica of the vocal tract model used
at the source and synthesizes the speech signal using the
model parameters sent from the source.
 Image coding
 Some of the image coding techniques are
 Sub-band coding, transform coding using FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform )
 DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform)
 Wavelet transform coding, predictive coding (DPCM,
ADPCM), JPEG (Joint Picture Expert Group) and MPEG
(Moving Picture Expert Group)
 Cyclic redundancy check
 Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is probably the most
reliable scheme for error detection.
 Let k = Block of binary data, an n = length of CRC
sequence, which is appended to the k-bit data block.
 The n-bit CRC determined in such a way that the
resulting k + n bit sequence is exactly divisible by some
perdetermined bit string (generator polynomial) which is
n + 1 bit long.
 Example
Consider the data to be transmitted D is 101110 using
CRC-error checking method. Suppose the generator
polynomial G is chosen as 1001. Find the final value that
the transmitter sends and show the error detection
process at the receiver.
CRC: at transmitter
CRC: at receiver
 Block coding
 Block coding is an error correction technique in which
the data is grouped into k-bit blocks.
 To each of the k bits for a block, (n − k) redundant bits
called parity bits are appended.

The resulting n-bit sequence for transmission is called (n,
k) block code, for every n bits transmitted, only k bits are
information-bearing. The code rate is defined as k/n.
 Wireless modulation schemes
 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
 Infrared Modulation Techniques
 Spread spectrum
 Direct-sequence spread spectrum
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
 Changing the bit changes the sign of the transmitted
signal is known as binary phase shift keying.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
 In QPSK modulation scheme, four different phase angles
are used to indicate the phase shifts based on binary
stream, thereby creating four symbols: π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4,
and 7π/4.
 The amplitude is constant.
 The QPSK corresponds to the Phase modulation with 4
symbols.
QPSK transmitter
QPSK constellation diagram
 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
(GMSK)
 Minimum shift keying (MSK) is a special type of
continuous phase-frequency shift keying (CPFSK) with
modulation index = 0.5
 A modulation index of 0.5 corresponds to minimum
frequency spacing that allows two FSK signals to be
orthogonal, thus minimum frequency separation (i.e.,
bandwidth) that allows orthogonal detection.
 A GMSK uses Gaussian filters to preserve the properties
of MSK: spectral efficiency and bandwidth efficiency.
 Infrared modulation techniques
 It is difficult to maintain a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
sufficient to support high bit rates under all conditions
using reasonable transmitter power levels.
 Rate-adaptive transmission scheme is available based on
variable rate repetition coding of four-slot pulse-position
modulation (PPM) for the next-generation Infrared Data
Association (IrDA) Standards.
 Spread spectrum
 Spreading the data across the frequency spectrum makes
signal resistant to noise, interference and eavesdropping.
 There are two types of spread spectrum techniques
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
 Direct-sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS)
 The data signal is multiplied by a Pseudo
Random Noise Code (PN-code).
 A PN-code is a sequence of chips valued -1 and 1
(polar) or 0 and 1 (non-polar). The number of
chips (N) within one code is called the period of
this code. A
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS)
 The large bandwidth is effectively split into frequency
channels.
 The hop set (channel hopping sequence) is not arbitrary,
but determined by the use of a pseudo random sequence.
 The receiver can reproduce the identical hop set and so
decode the signal.
Frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS)
 Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
 OFDM is a multi carrier modulation (MCM) scheme, in which
many parallel data streams are transmitted at the same time over
a channel, with each transmitting only a small part of the total
data rate.

DMT (discrete multitone) is a similar system used in copper-
based DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) systems to overcome
transmission problems.
 With OFDM, a high-speed digital message is divided into a
large number of separate carrier waves.
 Diversity techniques
 Diversity technique is a method for improving the
reliability of a message signal by utilizing two or more
communication channels with different characteristics.
 Diversity plays an important role in combating fading,
co-channel interference, avoiding error bursts and it
may exploit the multipath propagation resulting in a
diversity gain.
 Types of diversity
 There are several different kinds of diversity
which are commonly employed in wireless
communication systems are as follows.
 Time diversity
 Frequency diversity
 Space diversity
Time diversity
Frequency diversity
Space diversity
 Multiple-input and Multiple-Output
(MIMO)
 Multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO, is the use of
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve communication performance.
 It offers significant increases in data throughput and link range
without additional bandwidth or transmit power.
 Wireless communication channel
specifications
 Wireless communication channel specification involves
allocating the finite resource in two steps:
 Finite resource is allocated for the two directions of
transmission
 Portion allocated for each direction is used to create
multiple channels for that direction.
 These two steps of subdividing the finite resource are
referred to as:
 Duplexing methods
 Multiple access methods
 Duplexing methods
 Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
 FDD is employed in radio systems to provide an uplink and
downlink radio channel between the sender and the receiver.
 In FDD, the total available bandwidth is allocated separately for the
forward and reverse directions of transmission.
 Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
 Two directions of the transmission are created by
alternating the transmission in time.
 The maximum bit rate supportable for a given bandwidth
W is allocated between the two directions.
 The multiple access methods
 The multiple access methods refer to the method of
creating multiple channels for each transmission
direction. There are three main types multiple access
methods:
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA is a
channel access method used in multiple access protocols
as a channelization protocol.
 FDMA gives users an individual allocation of one or
several frequency bands, or channels, so that receivers
can discriminate among them by tuning to the desired
channel.
 Multiple Access systems coordinate access between
multiple users.
 Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA) is a channel
access method for shared medium networks.
 It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by
dividing the signal into different time slots.
 The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other,
each using his own time slot.
 This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission
medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while using only a part
of its channel capacity.
 Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
 CDMA (or spread spectrum) is a form of multiplexing
where the transmitter encodes the signal using a pseudo-
random sequence which the receiver also knows and can
use to decode the received signal.

Each different random sequence corresponds to a
different communication channel.
 Types of wireless communication
systems
 Traditional Communications Systems
 FM Mobile
 AM Aircraft Communications
 Paging Systems
 Amateur Radio (Ham Radio)
 Personal Communications Systems (PCS)
 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
 Cellular communication system
evolution
• First Generation (1G)
• Second Generation (2G)
• 2.5G Communication Systems
• 3G Communication Systems
• Fourth generation systems
• Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
 FM Mobile
 Typical mobile FM transmitters emit 5 to 150 Watts
while their permanent base stations often transmit at 150
Watts with an omni-directional footprint. The spectrum
profile of narrowband FM spans about 5 kHz.
 Before the emergence of the personal mobile wireless
(cellular) phones in the 1990’s, public safety
applications, such as police, fire and forest services, used
narrowband FM technology.

These applications still exist in the 50, 150 and 450 MHz
FM bands.
 AM aircraft communications
 Using the VHF (Very High Frequency) frequencies in the
118-136 MHz region, authorities allocated 25 kHz-wide
channels for a higher voice quality AM for aircraft
communications.

Being exceedingly mobile, aircraft interferer’s are also
difficult to pin down since any one aircraft is only in the area
for tens of seconds.
 But again, their ground transmitters can be a constant source
of relatively high signal powers. The spectrum profile again
reflects the voice nature of this application.
 Paging Systems
 Paging is one way communication where a person
informs the base center the message to be sent to the
destination.
 Paging systems typically use FSK modulation format
which exhibits a spectrum profile with two separated
peaks, each representing one of the two frequencies
which shift according to the digital “one” or “zero” being
transmitted.
 Amateur radio (Ham radio)
 Scattered throughout the frequency spectrum are a
number of allocated frequency bands dedicated to
“Ham” radio operators.
 While their transmitters largely use AM modulation, they are
also authorized to run experimental transmissions in other
formats. Their emitted powers can be quite high since they
intend to transmit to others around the earth.
 Hams often use large, steerable directional arrays of HF (high
frequency) antennas to increase their directional power, so
their interfering power can be quite high.
 Personal Communications Systems
(PCS)
 The PCS in the 1800-1900 MHz frequency band. PCS
was supposed to be a more comprehensive specification
than the earlier cellular specification at 800 MHz.
 Customers often prefer PCS systems because of their
inexpensive nature and the ability to install them without a
tedious licensing process.
 They are popular for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint
data link applications such as intra company data bridges.
 Global System for Mobile
communications (GSM)

GSM is assigned two frequency bands at 900 and 1800
MHz. Each band supports 124 channels at 200 kHz
spacing and each is broken into 8 time slots operating in
a TDMA mode.
 Short Message Service which allows you to send and receive
126 character text mes-sages.
 Allows data transmission and reception across GSM networks
at speeds up to 9,600 bps currently.
 More capacity, ensuring rapid call set-up. Handsets also
smaller and more robust.
 Cellular communication systems
 Cellular communiacation system went throgh many
generations of development.
 First Generation (1G)
 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) was the first
standard. Based on FDMA, it provided wireless voice
transmission and minimal data services.
 Due to frequency reuse issues, one transmission tower
(commonly called a cell) can only support 118 calls at any one
time.
 Second generation (2G)

Second generation digital systems are classified by their
multiple access techniques as either FDMA, TDMA or
CDMA.
 2G standard is the GSM system, developed to bring the
inherent advantages of digital cellular network
technology to the consumer market and provide a
common standard.
 2.5G communication systems
 The cdma2000 (1X) is part to Qualcomm’s strategy to
smooth the transition for CDMA WSPs to its new 3G
technology, cdma2000 (3X). GPRS provides a packet
switched data delivery mechanism to GSM systems, with
higher bandwidths than GSM itself.
 EDGE offers 384 kbps suitable for mobile multimedia
communications whereas earlier GPRS was offering 144
kbps.
 3G communication systems
 Third Generation (3G) cellular systems were developed
with the aim of offering high-speed data connectivity to
mobile customers.

3G systems are defined by the International
Telecommunications Union initiative IMT-2000, as
being capable of supporting high-speed data rates in the
range of 144 Kbps to >2 Mbps, depending on the
conditions and mobile speed.
 Fourth generation systems
 With UMTS paving the way for an explosion of
multimedia services on the mobile Internet, researching
on 4G has started, which will demand increasingly
sophisticated systems and ever-faster radio links to
support them.

A primary area of 4G research includes bandwidth
efficient multiple access technology. This will result in
improved quality of service, increased data throughput
and spectral efficiency, adaptive modulation coding and
the design of novel algorithms.