Cultural sector and government in Canada

 Department of Canadian Heritage: government agency for

Canada’s cultural sector which also oversees
 amateur athletics program
 status of women
 issues with human rights and multiculturalism
 cultural issues also under: Department of Foreign Affairs
and International Trade, Department of Industry Canada
 also provincial and municipalities: policies at cultural sector
 Some institutions also relevant to cultural policy
 National Film Board of Canada
 Canada Council for the Arts
 many institutions and individuals affected by cultural policies
 cultural industries: $85 Billion & 1 million employed (2008)
 Cultural policy: the portfolio of legal, regulatory, technical
instruments to structure and support artistic activities (from
broadcasting to ballet)
Aesthetic & Economic: competing values in cultural policies

 Aesthetic: a transcendent quality of cultural works

 Representations of a nation’s creative energies
 Comment on social or political issues
 Material judged in aesthetic terms: ‘beautiful’,
‘sublime’
 Economic: profits, competition, efficiency
 Tensions: economic terms hard to justify aesthetic
qualities
 Central question for cultural policy analysts: understand how to
deal with the “potential clashes” between economic and
aesthetic values (Cowen, 2006, p.4)
 The national significance of Canadian cultural policy
 Canadian government: managing tensions by stressing the
national significance of its cultural policy (almost a century)
 History of cultural policy
o to share ‘Canadian stories’ among Canadians from coast
to coast
o A vibrant cultural sector to flourish
o To ensure national cohesiveness and citizen participation
in Canadian society (large and historically fragmented)
 framed in a language of national defence: cultural policies
needed in Canada
o To protect its citizens from overexpose to ‘American
culture’
o To ensure Canada’s cultural sovereignty
 Cultural policy in Canada: managing tensions from artistic,
nationalistic and economic areas

 Three areas for cultural policy making in Canada

 what are the cultural policies implemented in diverse cultural
activities
 evaluation of those cultural policies
 Key concepts: from film, broadcasting, digital media
 new media technologies:
o opportunities for cultural production, distribution,
exhibition
o issues framing previous policies: still central to
future policies
 Rationale: what is considered in making cultural policies

 Policy for cultural purposes: regulating for what?

 Regulation: government to manage and organize social and
economic activities that affect the wider public good
o easy to understand policies regulating automotive
industry, health care, environment , water industry
o Why regulating a documentary film
o why policy on something that is clearly expressive in
nature
o Why the state to intervene in the cultural sector
 Geographic reasons
 Develop and implement cultural polices: physical and
geographical terrain
 Distance: size and diversity
 cultural and socio-political diversity
 Regionalism: different language groups
o cultural expression: no one-size-fits-all approach
 Cultural polices: necessary to overcome distances and
differences to ensure exchange and access to a range of
cultural works
o Whether in urban, rural, or northern settings
o Cultural works through communication
technologies: distance calls for policies that ensure
solid technological infrastructure – of radio
transmitters, cable systems, or broadband – to
ensure access to those cultural materials
Geographic reasons
 Economic reasons
 Tension: Art for art’s sake (intrinsic value) vs. art for money’s
sake (exchange value)
 Cultural policy shaped with economics in mind
 The state: arbiter of culture
o Free of pure profit or market incentives
 Creator of policies that allow for production and
dissemination of art and culture
o Not driven by a market logic
 Assessing magazine policy: “the cultural significance of
magazines lies not in the printed text collected between its
covers, but in what the existence of such a cultural form
suggests about the relationship between culture and
economics in a society like ours” (Szeman, 2000, pp.222-223)
 Economic reasons
 Some argue against commodification of culture
 cultural nationalists: up to the government to ensure an
environment created to promote production and
dissemination of art and culture not solely dictated by the
market
 Cultural policy needed: to encourage cultural production
o Cultural works expensive to produce
o Small population: size of economy
o Additional cost to import American products
o No market (commercial benefit): controversial art
works and cultural expression by artists
 Policies to correct market irregularities to support art
works regardless of ‘market value’ or commercial worth
 Not only for aesthetic purposes: jobs and dollars
 Social reasons
 Having the social in mind: to what extent individual citizens
have access and participation in their culture and arts
 Citizenships: more than political acts (voting), or civic acts
(volunteer work)
 structure and quality of communication systems: related
to quality of Canadian democracy
o Media technologies: central role in framing and
exchanging information and ideas
o Part of the ways in which Canadians learn about
themselves and others
 Cultural policies: to provide structural foundation and to
encourage development of content to allow for the above
information exchange
 Nationalistic reasons
 A question of origin: related to questions of identity and
nationality
 Avatar –Hollywood blockbuster (though Canadian
director)
 Benedict Anderson (1991): nation is imagined
o Nation-myth is held together through communication
and cultural technologies that collapse time and space
o Canada: country founded on soil of First Nations, out
of conflicts between the two colonial powers France
and England, neighbouring the US
o A problematic national concept to communicate,
enforce and maintain
 Tinic (2005, p.16): Canada as modern imagined community
 National public broadcasting: designed to deal with
geographic vastness, diverse regional, linguistic, native,
immigrant groups within the country’s boundaries
o Provide a sense of national self-consciousness
 Nationalistic reasons
 Confederation and dominion: Canada
 Cultural policies used by governments to consolidate
economic, political and social policies directed at
nationhood (nationalism)
 Cultural sovereignty entangled and equated with national
sovereignty: governmentalism
o Federal funding earmarked for Canada Day
celebrations ion Quebec
o Events celebrating 200th anniversary of the War of
1812
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 Policy apparatus: Legal; regulatory & institutional;
instrumental aspects (policy instruments/techniques)
 Different mechanisms for cultural policy measures
o Diplomatic: policies on copyright in line with that of
other countries or through international accords
o political: lobbying by interest groups within cultural
sector
o pragmatic: policies created by institution to achieve
certain objectives – publication of poetry
 Policy making through consultative process: call for public
opinion and participation for specific cultural industries
o Royal Commissions for cultural issues
o Public inquiries created by PM to investigate issues of
public interest or controversy
o Named from outside the government to oversee the
inquiry; experts and the public ideas
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 Legislative Actions: Acts of parliament for legal and regulatory
structure on arts and cultural sectors
 Laws: protecting privacy, punishing hate speech, ensuring
consumer rights, individual access to government
information, copyright and patent protection
 laws also: structure certain cultural activities
o Broadcasting Act: owner; language; programs; goals
o Telecommunications Act
o Digital media: content and platforms
o Diverse and now merged: corporate convergence across
media platforms
 Non-updated laws: lack of political will
o Legal structure preceded new technological and structural
developments
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 Investment Canada Act: on ownership of media properties in
Canada
o Limits extent of foreign ownership of firms in ‘cultural
businesses’ – newspapers, broadcasting operations,
publishing, film distribution
o Double-edged sword: limit number of players in Canadian
marketplace
 a media environment dominated by only a few
large players: Quebecor, etc
 Bell & Astral Media: 79 TV channels, 107 radio
stations, over 100 websites (CBC News, 2012)
 Shaw: broadband internet, cable service, Global
TV Network, History TV, and others
o A system: to encourage strong companies for distributing
Canadian Content
 lead to ownership consolidation (convergence)
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 Cultural institutions: created based on legislative actions
 CBC (1936): broadcasting services
 National Film Board (NFB, 1939): first as propaganda
o later as supporting production of documentary, animation,
experimental films, and a leading training institutions for
filmmakers
 Canada Council for Arts (1957): to oversee production and
promotion of arts
o artistic activities: literature, performing arts
 Regulatory institutions: created based on acts of parliament
 oversee adherence to rules by participants
 CRTC (1969): broadcasters, cable & satellite companies,
telecommunication service providers
 a broader shift in cultural policies: from creation of cultural
institutions to creation of regulatory agencies
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 a broader shift in cultural policies: from creation of cultural
institutions to creation of regulatory agencies
 from support of individual cultural institutions to that of
developing cultural industries: policies in broadcasting and film
since 1960s & 70s
 broadcasting: CBC once the only national network & regulator of
all broadcasting activities
 private networks allowed by 1960s (1957 Fowler)
o Board of Broadcast Governors created (CRTC) : licences;
monitor private broadcasters on the public airwaves
 Feature film industry supported by government: away from NFB
and documentary film
 cultural policy apparatus: production companies, film
distribution undertakings, and book and magazine editors all
operate
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 policy instruments: techniques used by cultural institutions and
regulatory bodies for meeting legal requirements and achieving
policy objectives
 organizations and funding sources: support production of
cultural works
 Telefilm Canada: support production of TV, films and new media
 Canada Council: grants for theatrical companies
 Canada Book Fund: aid domestic publishers for writers
FACTOR or Musicaction: funds to musicians for master recordings
 Canadian Magazine Fund: creation of editorial content and
organization support in magazine sector
 Canada Periodical Fund (CPF): help print magazines, nondaily
newspaper, digital periodicals
 Canada Media Fund: various forms of media content (incl
software and digital media)
 Cultural policies in Canada: outline
 support distribution or exhibition of cultural works
 Cancon regulations for broadcasters by Broadcasting Act:
‘shelf space’ on the air
o for radio: MAPL
o for TV: Canadian creative talent or production’s expenses
(CAVCO)
 indirect forms of support: subsidies, funds, tax breaks
 subsidies to magazine distribution: offset postal costs
 musicians: funds in promotion, marketing, distribution
(on/offline)
 artworks transported between publicly funded art galleries:
service operated by government at a reduced cost
o art institutions easily share works
 tax breaks at federal, provincial or municipal: film and TV
productions (for Canadian audiences or foreign films shot in
Canada) to reduce production costs
 Evaluation of cultural policies in Canada
 achievements: numerous theatre troupes, broadcasting
companies, publishers, magazines to serve a diversity of Canadian
interests
 more outlets: a matter of personal choice
 an environment created: to facilitate industrial development
 a relative level of stability: in cultural sector
 often a state of flux: for artists and cultural creators
 funds increased then decreased; programs; supports changed
 Foreign Affairs: touring exhibitions for artists and musicians
 CRTC: rules on Canadian content --> production community
o Entertainment Tonight Canada, eTalk Daily:
“entertainment news” counted as Canadian content
 concerns on CBC funding cut: deliver public broadcasting
 the logic of cultural policymaking
 adapt to changing policy conditions and specific industry
 Evaluation of cultural policies in Canada
 heavy influence of federal government in policy supports:
 dependent on political machinations and bureaucracy
 economic fluctuation : dollars (foreign film, TV production)
 success of Canadian products domestic and global: cultural
policies supported the infrastructure
 Canadian music industry: survival on Canadian content
regulations on radio
 claims: ignore other factors (artistic, audiences and
scheduling, marketing, social or regional context)
o overestimating policy framework
 Evaluation of cultural policies in Canada
 impacts of Canada’s cultural policies: framework for development
of cultural sector
 on the structure and character of cultural sector and
development of its cultural industries
 difficult to evaluate policies on individual artists or the sector
o TV and film: 80% failure rate even in the US
o failure of Canadian film: audiences’ interests and less
screen time to Canadian movies at the theatre (not really)
o content requires for Canada’s movie theatre?
o measure of success: theatrical exhibition?
o documentaries, short films, or movies for TV, video-on-
demand services?
o audience ratings? DVD sales?
 how to evaluate success: jobs in cultural sector, or, Canadians to
see Canadian movies?
 train people for careers; how to define ‘success’?
Digital media: challenges to existing frameworks of cultural policies
 DIY & amateur DIWO: Youtube, global connecting prosumers
 unconcerned with a nationalist context
 ‘convergence culture’: consumers’ participation
 government: how to fold the internet into a policy framework
 streaming video provider (Netflix): whether foreign services
should fund Canadian cultural production
 internet service providers as “broadcasters”: obliged to
contribute to funds (creative sector)
 public hearings: not successful in Supreme Court of Canada
(2012)
 cultural policy mechanisms: support user-generated-content
o implications for amateur (Bieber), not benefit from
subsidies, becoming famous via YouTube
o ‘where does YouTube fit in a policy framework?’
Digital media: challenges to existing frameworks of cultural policies
 Abundant devices/platforms: convergence
 unconcerned with a nationalist context
 ‘convergence culture’: consumers’ participation
 rules and policies for radio and broadcast over radio airwaves: not
applicable for online broadcasting
 regulatory measures (hate speech, Canadian content, adult
content on TV during certain hours): less effective for diverse
devices and platforms
 CRTC: exempt cellular companies from television regulations
 cultural policy: need adapt and evolve regarding all production,
distribution and consumption of media
Digital media: challenges to existing frameworks of cultural policies
 cultural policy: in theory shaped by population, diverse tastes,
habits, cultural sensibilities
 multiple audiences: media consumption habits hard to
measure
 unsure on nature of consumption, though use and habits
 fragmented, multiple
A shift in policymaking for “mass audience” to “niche
audiences”
 Convergence: as “a top-down corporate-driven process and a
bottom-up consumer-driven process”: Jenkins
 webdoc: challenge both policy and older media models
Digital media: challenges to existing frameworks of cultural policies
 new laws: from addressing exposure to access
 net neutrality
Copyright
 throttling
 illegal recording of new blockbuster via Weblink
Music downloading
 mash-ups and DIY creators
 Bill C-11: copyright laws, illegal to move music from a CD to an
iPhone (digital lock on the disc)
 fair use and open source
 value of cultural products cannot be measured by a market
framework
 2008 Conservative Government: no tax credits to film or TV
productions (contrary to public policy); cut for CBC, NFB
 conclusion: stakeholders and balancing aesthetic &
socioeconomic factors