Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Balance sheet
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Objectives of Balance sheet
• The function of the correctly prepared balance
sheet is to exhibit the true and correct view of
the state of affairs of any concern.
• In a balance sheet as the assets and liabilities
are shown in details after being properly
valued, a trader can judge the position of his
business from it.
Need for the balance sheet
Primary Data:
Primary source of data is the first hand original data collected by the
investigator through observation, interview, questionnaire,
experimentation and surveys.
Primary data presents the current scenario of the situation, therefore it
is more effective in taking business decisions.
Secondary data:
Secondary data is the data which is already collected by other
institutions such as annual reports, sales data, customer records and
survey, client databases, payment records, reports of marketing research
companies, trade association data and reports, company websites etc.
Demand forecasting
• Every organization needs the market for selling their product or
services. These sales depend on demand.
• The demand for a product or service depends upon customer
requirements and needs and it can change.
• Demand forecasting is the method of accurate determination of
the demands of sales.
• It estimates the quantity of production on the basis of
forecasted demand.
• The estimation of future demand of a product manufactured by
an industrial organizations will be done on the basis of present
and past data of the demand of the product.
• Forecasting not only plans the quantity of production and
demand but also is necessary to plan material requirements,
schedule of production , operations and manpower etc.. So that
full capacity utilization of resources is possible.
Purpose of demand forecasting
Demand forecasting is essential because the reasons mentioned
below.
• It determines the volume of production and the production
rate.
• It forms basis for production budget, labour budget, material
budget etc.
• It suggests the need for plant expansion
• It suggests the need for changes in production methods.
• It helps establishing pricing policies.
• It helps deciding the extent of advertising, product
distribution etc.
• It helps to train the personnel so that manpower
requirements can be met.
Limitations
• Availability- It cannot be prepared in time if the required data are not easily available.
• Market behavior
It is required to consider the market behavior which brings about changes in demand.
Sales forecasting Methods
The various methods used to forecast demand trend can be
categorized into two ways:
Qualitative Method
• Jury of executive opinion
• The Delphi Method
• Sales force opinion
• Survey of customers buying
Quantitative method
• Time series forecasting
Opinion and judgmental methods or
Qualitative methods
Jury of executive opinion:
The views of executives or experts from sales, production, finance, purchasing and
administration are averaged to generate a forecast about future sales as they are well
informed about the company's market position, capabilities, competition and market
trend.
Using this method, the demand forecasts can be made relatively quickly and cheaply.
Delphi Method:
Delphi method is similar to jury of executive opinion. In this method a panel of
experts is asked to respond to a series of questionnaire.
The responses are tabulated and opinions of the entire group are made known to each
of the other panel members so that they may revise their previous forecast response.
forecast can be made quickly and economically using this method. Delphi method is a
reliable method because estimates are made on the Basis of knowledge and
experience of sales expert.
Sales force opinion:
Under this method, the salesmen estimate the expected sales
in their respective territories on the basis of previous experience.
Then demand is estimated after combining the individual
forecasts of the salesman. So more accurate estimate is possible.
Debentures:
A debenture is an acknowledgement stating the debt of a company. A holder of a
debenture is a creditor of the company.
When the company is being wound up the debtors should be given first preference during
the repayment of capital.
The return on investment of a debenture is interest. Interest is fixed to a particular
percentage.
A debenture holder cannot participate in the management of the company. A debenture
holder cannot vote during the company meetings.
Retained Earnings:
A company generally does not distribute all its earnings amongst the shareholders as
dividends( the return on investment of a share is dividend).
The portion of the profits which is not distributed among the shareholders but is retained
and is used in business is called retained earnings or ploughing back of profits.
Bank overdraft:
Sometimes commercial banks allow overdraft facilities to their reliable and
credit worthy customers. Commercial banks allow such customers to withdraw
more money than they actually deposited in the bank.
Overdraft is granted against security of goods or sometimes on persona
security of the customer. The bank charges penal rate of interest on the
amount over due.
Trade Credit:
For many businesses, trade credit is an essential tool for financing
growth. Trade credit is the credit extended to you by suppliers who let you buy
now and pay later. Any time you take delivery of materials, equipment or other
valuables without paying cash on the spot, you're using trade credit.
The volume and period of credit extended depends on factors such as
reputation of the purchasing firm, financial position of the seller, volume of
purchases, past record of payment and degree of competition in the market
etc.
Financial market
• Financial market is the market that facilitates
transfer of funds between investors/lenders and
borrowers/users.
• It consists of individual investors, financial
institution and other intermediaries for trading
the various financial assets and credit
institutions.
• Financial market can be classified into two
money market and capital market.
Money market
• The money market in that part of a financial market which
deals in the borrowing and lending of short term loans
generally for a period of less than or equal to one year. It is
a mechanism to clear short term monetary transactions in
an economy.
• money market instruments have the characteristics of
quick conversion into money, minimum transaction cost
and low loss in value.
• Some of the instruments used in the money markets are
certificates of deposits, bills of exchange, promissory notes,
commercial paper, treasury bills, etc.
Capital Market
• Capital market may be defined as a market for
borrowing and lending long term capital funds
required by business enterprises.
• Capital market offers an ideal source of external
finance. It refers to all the facilities and the
institutional arrangements for borrowing and lending
medium term and long term funds.
• The government body like any market , the capital
market is also composed of who demand funds
( borrowers) and those who supply funds (lenders).
Foreign Direct investment (FDI)
• The surplus of income over expenditure results in savings and
savings generate investments. Investment may be in physical
assets such as land ,building and factory, or it may be in financial
assets like bank deposits, shares, debentures and bonds.
• Investments made across the national boundaries are known as
international investments.
• When such an international investment is used to set up and
operate production or service facilities in other countries, it is
referred to as foreign Direct Investment.
• Various software companies like IBM India which is initially
based in Unites States but has opened its subsidiaries in
different part of India. Maruti suzuki is yet another example in
which suzuki of japan had joint ventured with Maruti Udyog ltd.
Advantages to Home country
• Improves the availability of raw materials
• Improves the Balance of payments(BOP)
• It creates more revenue
• It creates more employment
• Better political relations
• Gets better investment opportunity.
Foreign Institutional investor (FII)
• Foreign institutional investor means an institution
established or incorporated outside India which
proposes to make investment in securities in India.
• FIIS are regulated by SEBI (Securities and Exchange
Board of India). Foreign entities/Funds such pension
funds, mutual funds, charitable trusts can be as
registered as FII.
• A FII may invest on shares, debentures of
companies, Mutual funds and Government
securities.
Foreign portfolio Investor (FPI)
• Foreign Portfolio Investment is investment by non
residents in Indian securities including shares,
government bonds, corporate bonds, convertible
securities, infrastructure securities etc.
• Foreign Portfolio Investor should satisfy the
eligibility criteria prescribed by the Government
regulatory body, SEBI regulations 2014. Any
foreign company invests in the shares of Infosys
( based in India) is an example of FPI.
Taxation
• Taxes are the most important sources of
government income.
• Dr. Dalton defined a tax as “compulsory
contribution imposed by a public authority
,irrespective of the exact amount of securities
rendered to the tax payer in return”
Features of tax
Compulsory payment:
It is a compulsory contribution imposed by the government on the people residing in
the country. Since it is a compulsory payment, a person who refuses to pay the tax is
liable to punishment.
Public welfare:
A tax is that the revenue received through it is spent for public welfare. It does not
benefit any single individual in particular, rather entire society gets benefited by it.
No direct service:
The tax payer does not get any direct service in return for a tax.
Payment of taxes is personal responsibility of an individual
Legal procedure:
Another feature of tax is that it is imposed legally and properly. Taxes are levied
according to legal procedure.
Canons of tax/ characteristics of a good tax
system
A good tax system depends on the level of government expenditure,
role of the government and the level of economic development.
Canon of Equity:
Every person should be taxed according to his ability to pay that is
the rich should pay more and poor should pay less so that taxes
should be progressive in nature.
Canon of certainty:
The amount, time and method of tax should be clear and certain.
Canon of convenience:
While imposing tax, the time and method of tax payment should be
convenient to the tax payers.
Canon of economical:
A good tax system should be economical to the government in the sense that
the cost of collection of taxes should be small in proportional to the revenue
from them.
Canon of elasticity:
The tax system should be elastic. The government expenditure increases every
year. The tax revenue may be increased or decreased according to the need of
the government.
Canon of productivity:
A good tax system should be such as to bring in sufficient revenue in the
treasury.
Taxes on Income/ Direct Tax
Taxes may be direct or indirect
Direct Tax:
Direct tax is one that is collected directly from the people. In
the case of direct tax, the man who pays it is also intended to bear
the burden of it i.e impact and incidence are on the same person.
The person from whom it is collected cannot shift its burden to
anybody else.
The tax payer knows what to pay , why to pay and when to pay the
direct tax.
e.g income tax, wealth tax, property tax, corporate tax etc.
In case of direct tax, relationship between the tax payer and the
authorities are direct and personal.
Merits of Direct Tax
• Economy
• Certainty
• Elastic
• Equity
• Public spirit
• Regressive
• Evasion
• High cost of collection
• Uncertainty
Classification of tax
Taxes are classified into as follows.
Proportional Tax:
If the tax is imposed at the same rate on the persons
of different income level, it is called proportional tax.
In this tax, the tax revenue increases in proportion to
increase in income.
Proportional tax implies that the rate of tax does not
change with the change in income.
A fixed portion of income is levied as tax from all people.
Rate of tax
Income
Disadvantages
Income
Income
• Incidents of taxation refers to the person who bears the final burden
of taxation or who will have to pay the taxes finally. It is the final
resting place of a tax.
• If the impact & incidents of tax remains on the same person, i.e if
there is no shifting, then that tax is called direct tax.
E.g if a dealer purchases goods for Rs. 100/- from another dealer
and a tax of Rs. 10% has been charged in the bill. He sells the
goods for Rs. 120/- ( Rs 20/- being profit to him) on which the
dealer will charge a tax of Rs 12/- instead of 10%. Thus the dealer
has paid the tax at 10%, on Rs. 20/-be the value addition in his tax.
Tax Evasion
• Tax evasion is the efforts that are made by trusts, individuals,
firms and various other entities to avoid paying taxes by
illegal and unfair means.
• The evasion of tax usually takes place when taxpayers
intentionally hide their incomes from the tax authorities in
order to reduce their liability of tax.
• The level of evasion tax depends on the chartered
accountants and tax lawyers who help companies, firms,
individuals evade paying taxes.
• Tax evasion is a crime in all major countries and the guilty
parties are subjected to imprisonment and fines.
Methods of Tax Evasion
Smuggling
People export or import foreign goods through routes that are
unauthorized.
Customs duty evasion
The importers avoid paying customs duty by false declarations of
the description of the product and its quantity.
Value added tax evasion
The producers collect value added tax from the consumers and
evade paying those taxes to the government by showing less sales
amount.
Illegal tax evasion
Many people earn money by illegal means such as theft, gambling and
drug trafficking and so they do not pay tax on this amount.
Reasons for tax evasion