ENT288 Microprocessor

Number of unit: 3
Lecture: 33 Hours (64%)
Laboratory: 10 Hours (20%)
Tutorial: 4 Hours (8%)
Mini project: 4 Hours (8)
Reference Book:
•Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Rolin D. Mckinlay &
Danny Causey.
•PIC Microcontroller and Embedded Systems:
Using Assembly and C for PIC18, Pearson
Prentice Hall 2008.
1.0 Introduction to Microprocessor
1.1 History of Computer
1.2 Components of a Computer
1.3 History of Microprocessor
1.4 Microprocessor System
1.5 Microcontroller System
1.6 Embedded System
1.7 Embedded System Application

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1.1 History Of Computer

Abacus • 3000 BCE, early form

of beads on wires,
used in China
• From semitic abaq,
meaning dust.
Chinese Swan Pan
The Middle Ages
 Charles Babbage (1791-1871)

• Born: December 26, 1791

• son of Benjamin Babbage a London banker
(part of the emerging middle class: property,
education, wealth, and status)
• Trinity College, Cambridge [MA, 1817]
with John Herschel and George Peacock, produced a
translation of LaCroix’s calculus text.
 Ada Augusta Byron,
Countess of Lovelace
• Translated Menebrea’s paper into English
• Taylor’s: “The editorial notes are by the translator,
the Countess of Lovelace.”
• Footnotes enhance the text and provide examples
of how the Analytical Engine could be used, i.e.,
how it would be programmed to solve problems!
• Myth: “world’s first programmer”
 Herman Hollerith and the Evolution of
Electronic Accounting Machines
• Born: February 29, 1860
– Civil War: 1861-1865
• Columbia School of Mines (New York)
• 1879 hired at Census Office
• 1882 MIT faculty (T is for technology!)
• 1883 St. Louis (inventor)
• 1884 Patent Office (Wash, DC)
• 1885 “Expert and Solicitor of Patents”
• Thomas J. Watson
(1874-1956)
hired as first president

• In1924, Watson renames

CTR as International
Business Machines
 Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer (ENIAC)

• 1st large scale electronic digital computer

• designed and constructed at the Moore School
of Electrical Engineering of the University of
Pennsylvania
– since 1920s, faculty had worked with Aberdeen
Proving Ground’s Ballistics Research Laboratory
(BRL)
 Early Thoughts about
Stored Program Computing
• January 1944 Moore School team thinks of better ways to
do things; leverages delay line memories from War
research
• September 1944 John von Neumann visits
– Goldstine’s meeting at Aberdeen Train Station
• October 1944 Army extends the ENIAC contract to include
research on the EDVAC and the stored-program concept
• Spring 1945 ENIAC working well
• June 1945 First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC: Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
 First Draft Report (June 1945)
• John von Neumann prepares (?) a report on the EDVAC
which identifies how the machine could be programmed
(unfinished very rough draft)
– academic: publish for the good of science
– engineers: patents, patents, patents
• von Neumann never repudiates the myth that he wrote it;
most members of the ENIAC team ontribute ideas
 EDSAC

• Maurice Wilkes, University Mathematical

Laboratory, Cambridge University
• Moore School Lectures
• Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator,
EDSAC operational May, 1949
• J. Lyons Company and the LEO, Lyons Electronic
Office, operational fall 1951
 National Physical Laboratory
• Alan Turing
• Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)
• Basic design by spring, 1946
• Harry Huskey joins project
• Pilot ACE working, May 10, 1950
• English Electric: DEUCE, 1954
• Full version of ACE at NPL, 1959
 Second Generation (1958-1964)
• 1958 Philco introduces TRANSAC S-2000
– first transistorized commercial machine
• IBM 7070, 7074 (1960), 7072(1961)
• 1959 IBM 7090, 7040 (1961), 7094 (1962)
• 1959 IBM 1401, 1410 (1960), 1440 (1962)
• FORTRAN, ALGOL, and COBOL are first standardized
programming languages
 Third Generation (1964-1971)

• April 1964 IBM announces the System/360

– solid logic technology (integrated circuits)
– family of “compatible” computers
• 1964 Control Data delivers the CDC 6600
• nanoseconds
• telecommunications
• BASIC, Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
 Fourth Generation (1971- )

• Large scale integrated circuits (MSI, LSI)

• Nanoseconds and picoseconds
• Databases (large)
• Structured languages (Pascal)
• Structured techniques
• Business packages
PDP-11 (1970)
 Intel
• Noyce, Moore, and Andrew Grove leave Fairchild and
found Intel in 1968
– focus on random access memory (RAM) chips
• Question: if you can put transistors, capacitors, etc. on
a chip, why couldn’t you put a central processor on a
chip?
• Ted Hoff designs the Intel 4004, the first
microprocessor in 1969
– based on Digital’s PDP-8
 Microcomputers
• Ed Roberts founds Micro Instrumentation
Telemetry Systems (MITS) in 1968
• Popular Electronics puts the MITS Altair on the
cover in January 1975 [Intel 8080]
• Les Solomon’s 12 year old daughter, Lauren, was a
lover of Star Trek. He asked her what the name of
the computer on the Enterprise was. She said “
‘computer’ but why don’t you call it Altair because
that is where they are going tonight!”
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1.2 Components of a Computer
Computer Architectures
• Princeton versus Harvard Architecture
• CISC versus RISC processors
• Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

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von-Neumann Architecture

The CPU can

either read an
instruction or
read/write data
from/to the
memory. Both
cannot occur at the
same time

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Harvard Architecture

CPU can read an instruction and perform a data memory

access at the same time 24
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 RISC vs. CISC
RISC: Reduced Instruction Set computers
RISC features:
– Every instruction does a simple task
– Fixed instruction length (usually 32 bits)
– Data operations only applies to registers not memory
– Use memory load and store instruction to move data
– Use general purpose registers (usually 32)
– Use simple ways of referencing memory words

CISC: Complex Instruction Set computers

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Basic Computer Architecture
• Central Processing Unit
– Interprets and carries out all the instructions contained in
software
• Memory
– Used to store instructions and data
– Random Access Memory (RAM)
– Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Input/Output
– Used to communicate with the outside world
Buses

I/O CPU Memory

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1.3 History Of Microprocessor
1950s - The beginning of the digital era and
electronic computing
1969 – Intel is a small startup company in Santa
Clara with 12 employees. Fairchild, Motorola
are large semiconductor companies; HP and
Busicom make calculators
1971 – Intel makes first microprocessor the 4-bit
4004 series for Busicom calculators
1972 – Intel makes the 8008 series, an 8-bit
microprocessor, ATARI is a startup company,
Creates a gaming console and releases PONG

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1974 – the first real useful 8-bit microprocessor is
released by Intel – the 8080Motorola introduces
the 6800 series. Zilog has the Z80
1975 – GM and Ford begin to put microcontrollers
in cars. Many cars today have over 100
microcontrollers. TI gets into the microprocessor
business with calculators and digital watches
1977 – Apple II is released using MOS 6502
(similar to motorola 6800). Apple II dominated
from 1977 to 1983
1978 – Intel introduces the first 16-bit processor,
the 8086. Motorola follows with the 68000 which
is ultimately used in the first Apple Macintosh

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1981 – IBM enters the PC making market and
uses the Intel 8088 – proliferation of the home
computer
1982-1985 – Intel introduces the 32-bit 80286
and 80386
1989 – 80486 is being used in PC’s, able to run
Microsoft Windows
1992 – Apple, IBM and Motorola begin to make
PowerMac and PowerPC’s using Motorola chips
1993 – Pentium chip is released
The rest is history

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Microcontroller versus Microprocessor

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 Processor Performance

CPU Time
= # Cycles × Cycle Time
= # Instructions × CPI × Cycle Time

CPI: Cycles per instruction

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 Microprocessor
• A single chip that contains a whole CPU
– Has the ability to fetch and execute instructions
stored in memory
– Has the ability to access external memory,
external I/O and other peripherals
• Examples:
– Intel P4 or AMD Athlon in desktops/notebooks
– ARM processor in Apple iPod

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 Microprocessor (MPU)
– Read instructions
– Process binary data

CPU Time
= # Cycles × Cycle Time
= # Instructions × CPI ×
Cycle Time

CPI: Cycles per instruction

330_01 37
 MCU-Based Systems
• Includes microprocessor, memory, I/O ports,
and support devices (such as timers) on a
single semiconductor chip
• Buses are generally not available to a system
designer
• I/O ports are generally multiplexed and can be
programmed to perform different functions

330_01 38
 The CPU
• Purpose: The controlling element in a computer
system that performs data transfers, integer
arithmetic and logic, and input/output operations.
• Sizes: 4-bits to 64-bits
• Speeds: up to 4 GHz
• A byte is 8-bits
• Memory is addressed by byte
• RISC vs. CISC
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 CPU Task
• Executes instructions from the memory
system.
• A program is a collection of instructions stored
sequentially in the memory.
• A program is the computer’s software.
• The stored program concept makes the
computer fast and powerful.

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 Data Transfer Operations
• Most of a CPUs time is spent transferring data.
• Data transfers include: instruction fetches,
transfers between memory and registers,
transfers between registers and I/O.
• Transfers occur though the data bus.

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 Arithmetic and Logic Operations
• The CPU performs arithmetic on integers
using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division (some microcontrollers do not divide).
• Logic operations include AND, OR (inclusive and
exclusive), NOT, and shift/rotate.

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 Decisions
• The CPU makes decisions based upon numeric
facts to control the flow of a program.
• Zero—Not Zero, Positive—Negative, Carry—
No Carry
• Decisions modify the flow of a program
• Flow control allows tasks to be repeated or
skipped.

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 Memory
• Memory in a computer system is normally
numbered in bytes.
• Memory is accessed by bytes using a memory
address (address bus) numbered from memory
location 00000000.
• Memory addresses are expressed in the
hexadecimal numbering system (radix 16).
• Memory data flow through the data bus.

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 Data Bus
• The data bus is 4-, 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bits in
width in modern computers.
• The size of the CPU and its data bus are the
same or in some cases the data bus may be
twice as wide as the CPU size.
• A 16-bit computer has a 16-bit data bus.
• The Pentium 4 is a 32-bit computer with a 64-
bit data bus.

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 Address Bus
• The address bus selects a memory location or an I/O
device
• The size (number of bits) of the address bus
determines the maximum memory size.
• An 8-bit address can address 256 bytes of memory
(28).
• 1K = 1024 and requires a 10-bit address
• 1M = 1024 * 1024 and requires a 20-bit address
• 1G = 1M * 1024 and requires a 30-bit address
• 1T = 1G * 1024 and requires a 40-bit address
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 Control Bus
• The control bus controls memory and I/O.
• The control bus contains two main signals that
originate from the CPU.
• The #RD signal causes a read operation.
• The #WR signal causes a write operation.
• Some CPUs also contain a signal that selects
memory or I/O called M/#IO.

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 ROM
• A ROM is a nonvolatile memory that is used to
store programs and static data
• The ROM is usually either an EPROM or an
EEPROM memory.
• The EPROM is erased using an ultraviolet
lamp.
• The EEPROM is erased electrically
• In either device, memory does not change
when power is removed from the system.
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 RAM
• The RAM is the read/write memory in a system that
stored dynamic data and will not retain data without
power.
• RAM is available as either SRAM or DRAM.
• SRAM stores data as long as power is applied.
• DRAM must be refreshed because it only stores data
for a few milliseconds.
• Large memory system usually use DRAM and small
memory systems usually use SRAM.

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 I/O
• The I/O in a computer allows the CPU and its
program to communicate to humans and
machines.
• A input device inputs data to the CPU and
examples include keyboards and switches.
• An output device accepts data from the CPU
and examples include printers, indicators, and
so forth.
• I/O data is often 8-bits in width.
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INSTRUCTION SET

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

i.e. PIC Microcontroller

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)

i.e. Intel 8085

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 Intel processors
• CPU Year Data Memory MIPS
• 4004 1971 4 1K
• 8008 1972 8 16K
• 8080 1974 8 64K
• 8088 1980 8 1M .33
• 80286 1982 16 1M 3
• 80386 1985 32 4G 11
• 80486 1989 32 4G 41
• Pentium1993 64 4G 111
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 Microcontroller
• Essentially a microprocessor with on-chip memories
and I/O devices
• Designed for specific functions
• All in one solution - Reduction in chip count
– Reduced cost, power, physical size, etc.
• Examples
– MC68332, MC68HC11, PPC555
• More details of components later
– A/D converters, temperature sensors, communications,
timing circuits, many others

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 Microcontroller Components – CPU
• Smart part
– Processes instructions
and data
– All the parts of a
microprocessor Register 0
address data
• Registers – fast memory Register 1
r/w Register n-1
used to store operands and
other information inst
ALU
– Condition register –
positive/negative result
– Exception register – CPU
overflow condition
– Loop count register
• Load-store architecture 55
•CPU
•On-chip peripherals and
memory
•Parallel and serial digital I/O
•Analog I/O
•Counters and timers
•Internal ROM and/or EPROM

Support Devices
Timers
A/D converter
Serial I/O
Common communication lines
System Bus
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Microcontroller Components – Memory
• Each memory location has
a specific address
• We must supply an Memory location 0
Memory location 1
address to access the
corresponding location
address data
• R/W allows us to select
reading or writing Memory location n-2
• Various types of memory Memory location n-1
for different functions and
r/w
speeds

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Microcontroller Components – Memory
• Read Only Memory - Memory that can only be read
– Holds the program code for a microprocessor
used in an embedded system where the code is
always the same and is executed every time the
system is switched on
– Computer BIOS, boot-up information
• Other types of Read Only Memory
– Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
(EPROM) – Similar to ROM but can be erased
(exposure to ultraviolet light) and reprogrammed
– Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EEPROM) – more common that EPROM
because it can be erased by the microprocessor
– Flash Memory, Ferroelectric RAM (FRAM),
Magnetic Random Access Memory (MRAM) 58
Microcontroller Components – Memory
• Random Access Memory – used to store dynamic data when processor
is running
– Holds program code and data during execution
– Can be accesses in any random order – unlike takes or disks
• Some types of RAM
– Static RAM (SRAM) – Uses transistors to store bits, fast SRAM is used
for cache
– Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – Uses capacitors to store bits, must be
refreshed, smaller and cheaper than SRAM
• Fast Page Mode (FPM), Extended Data Out (EDO)
• Synchrounous DRAM (SDRAM) – introduced in 1997 and replaced
most DRAM in computers by 2000
• Double Data Rate (DDR SDRAM) – uses both clock edges found
today in most computers
• Direct Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) – somewhat of a flop

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Microcontroller Components – I/O
• Connection to the outside world
• Examples
– Analog to Digital Converter
– Temperature Sensor
– Display
– Communications Circuit

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Microcontroller Components – BUS
• Group of wires used to transport information
• CPU to Memory
– Address bus
– Data bus
• CPU to I/O
– Port mapped I/O – used when address space is
limited, special instructions are needed for I/O
– Memory mapped I/O – I/O looks like memory
locations, easier to use and common in Reduced
Instruction Set Computing (RISC)

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Microcontroller unit sales are 15x higher than
microprocessors. and cheaper but less feature and
processing power. Microcontrollers are a large market
with growth rate for 2003 is at 9.42%.

•16- and 32-bit and higher are on the rise. They will
double their unit market share from 15.11% in 1998 to
31.56% in 2003, decreasing 4-bit and 8-bit devices.
•The manufacturer Intel, AMD, PIC, ARMS, TI,
Motorola, Siemens, Hitachi, MIT, Renesas, Samsung.
•1994 Malaysia's first locally designed IC, 16-bit RISC
microprocessor, Pesona.
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1.6 Embedded System
• Special purpose computer system usually completely inside the device it
controls
• Has specific requirements and performs pre-defined tasks
• primarily as a means to simplify the system design and to provide flexibility.
• Often the user of the device is not even aware that a computer is present.
• Cost reduction compared to general purpose processor
• Different design criteria
– Performance
– Cost
– Reliability
– Availability
– Safety

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Types of Embedded System

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Embedded controller is selected based on system
requirements;

•data bus width and processing speed

•memory for data collection and storage and control
program.
•built-in mathematic function, ADC, DAC, Servo
•input/output, communication and package size and
application.
•Low power, small size and light weight
•device development tools, testing and production cost.

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What is a Real-Time System?
• Real-time systems process events.
• Events occurring on external inputs cause
other events to occur as outputs.
• Minimizing response time is usually a
primary objective, or otherwise the entire
system may fail to operate properly.

Hard/Soft Real-Time Systems

• Soft Real-Time System
– Compute output response as fast as possible,
but no specific deadlines that must be met.
• Hard Real-Time System
– Output response must be computed by specified
deadline or system fails. 67
Multi-Tasking and Concurrency
• Most real-time systems are also embedded
systems w/several inputs and outputs and
multiple events occurring independently.

• Separating tasks simplifies programming,

but requires somehow switching back and
forth among the three task (multi-tasking).

• Concurrency is the appearance of

simultaneous execution of multiple tasks.

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 Embedded System Programming
Low Level Language

• Machine Language
A bundle of binary bits with certain formats
Only asks for simple operations
AA
09
9F
• Assembly
High speed, low code size
However, difficult to do a large project in assembly
Assembly: textual notations of machine program
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High level language e.g. C
– Ease of management of large embedded projects
– Provides an additional level above assembly programming
– Fairly efficient
– Supports access to I/O

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1.7 Embedded System Application

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 M-NOSE Ver 1.0
• Microcontroller - Hitachi 8-bit H8/3687
• RAM - 4KB 32MHz and 512 KB flash memory
• ADC - 8 channe10 bits
 M-NOSE Ver 2.0
• Microcontroller - Rabbit 8-bit RCM4000
• RAM - 512KB 58MHz and 32MB flash memory
• ADC - 8 channe12 bits
 M-NOSE Ver 3.0

Microcontroller - Rabbit 8-bit RCM4000

RAM - 512KB 58MHz and 32MB flash memory
ADC - 8 channe12 bits