Collecting

Qualitative Data
Field Issues

Permissions
Procedures
References

Sampling
Types

Steps
Research Approach to TEFL

Aulyahaq Tiabarte – F2201201004

PROGRAM MAGISTER PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
UNIVERSITAS TANJUNGPURA
 Five Process Steps in Qualitative
Data Collection
First
Identify participants and sites to be
studied and to engage in a
sampling strategy that will best
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Field issues
Procedures

help you understand your central Fourth

Sampling
phenomenon and the research You need to design instruments for

Steps
Types

questions you are asking collecting and recording the

information
Second
Gain access to there
individuals and sites by
obtaining permission Fifth
Finally, you need to administer the
data collection with special
Third attention of gathering information
Once permission are in place, you face-to-face and often in people’s
need to consider what types of homes or workplaces.
information will best answer your
research questions
 Different Sampling Approaches for
Selecting Participants and Sites
In qualitative research, the intent is not to generalize to a population, but
to develop an in-depth exploration of a central phenomenon
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Field issues

To best understand the phenomenon, the qualitative researcher purposefully

Procedures

Samplin
or intentionally selects individuals and sites. However, in qualitative research,
Types

Steps
the focus is on purposeful sampling.

g
In any qualitative study, you may decide to study a site (e.g., one college
campus), several sites (three small liberal arts campuses), individuals or
groups (freshman students), or some combination (two liberal art campuses
and several freshman students on those campuses

Some types of purposeful sampling will be discussed further on the next slide.
 Different Sampling Approaches for
Selecting Participants and Sites
Maximal Variant Sampling
The researcher requires to identify
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Procedures
the characteristic and find sites or
individuals that display different
Types
dimensions of that characteristic.
(e.g., different age groups, racial)
Typical Sampling
The researcher studies a person or
site that is “typical” to those
unfamiliar with the situation.
Extreme Case Sampling
Extreme or deviant case
sampling means selecting cases
Samplin
that are unusual or special in
Steps
some way, such as outstanding
g
successes or notable failures.
Theory / Concept Sampling
The researcher samples individuals or
sites because they can help the
researcher generate or discover a
theory or specific concepts within the
theory.
 Different Sampling Approaches for
Selecting Participants and Sites

Homogeneous Sampling Critical Sampling

The researcher purposefully
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The sampling strategy here is to study
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Procedures

Sampling
samples individuals or sites based a critical sample because it is an
Types

on membership in a subgroup that

Steps
exceptional case and the researcher
has defining characteristics. can learn more about the phenomenon.

Opportunities Sampling
Opportunistic sampling is purposeful sampling undertaken after the research
begins, to take advantage of unfolding events that will help answer research
questions. In this process, the sample emerges during the inquiry.
 Different Sampling Approaches for
Selecting Participants and Sites

Snowball Sampling
In certain research situations, you may not know the best people to
Permissions
study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic or the complexity of
Field issues
Procedures

Samplin
events. Qualitative snowball sampling typically proceeds after a study
Types

Steps
begins and occurs when the researcher asks participants to recommend

g
other individuals to be sampled.

Confirming and Disconfirming Sampling

The last form of purposeful sampling, also used after studies begin, is to
sample individuals or sites to confirm or disconfirm preliminary
findings. Confirming and disconfirming sampling is a purposeful
strategy used during a study to follow up on specific cases to test or
explore further specific findings..
 Types of Permissions That Will Be
Required To Gain Access To Participants
and Sites
Seek Institutional Review Board Approval

PLAN PLAN PLAN PLAN

Field Issues
Procedures

Permission
Sampling
1 2 3 4
Types

Steps
Be respectful.
Determine if the Detail how the
Keeping a delicate
reviewer who study will
balance between
review the Develop provide
exploring a
proposals on detailed opportunities to
phenomenon in
the review description of give back to
depth and
board is the procedures individuals you
respecting
familiar with study (e.g.,
individuals and
qualitative donate services
property at the
inquiry at the site)
research site.
 Types of Permissions That Will Be
Required To Gain Access To Participants
and Sites
Seek Institutional Review Board Approval

PLAN PLAN PLAN PLAN

Field Issues
Procedures

Permission
Sampling
5 6 7 8
Types

Steps
Acknowledge Specify potential Detail how much
that during power time you will
your prolonged imbalances that spend at the Include in the
interaction with may occur research site. project
participants, between yourself Include description a
you may adopt and participants, anticipated days, list of the
their beliefs and and how your the length of interview
even become study will each visit, and questions.
advocate of address these how many times
their ideas. imbalances. when visits will
take place.
 Types of Permissions That Will Be
Required To Gain Access To Participants
and Sites
Gatekeepers
(An individual who has an official / unofficial role at the site, provide entrance to site, help researcher s locate people, and assists in the
identification of places to study.) For example, this individual may be a teacher, principal, a group leader, etc.
You might be required to submit written information about the project to proceed. Such information might include:

03
Field Issues

What potential
Procedures

Permission
How much

Sampling
01 there is for your
time you will
04 presence to be
Types

Why their site spend at the

Steps
was chosen for site disruptive
study 06
What the
individuals at
the site will
gain from the
02 study
What will be
accomplished at site 05
during the study (time & How you will
resources required by use and report
participants and yourself the result
 Types of Qualitative Data Collection
01 Observational
Observations Roles
Participant Observer
Observational role adopted by researcher when they
take part in activities in the setting they observe.

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Procedures

Sampling
Types

Steps
Nonparticipant
Is the process of gathering Observer
Observer who visits a site and records notes without
open-ended, firsthand
becoming involved in the activities of the participants.
information by observing
people and places at a
research site. The data Changing Observational Role
collected during an
observation are called Where researchers adapt their role to the situation. For
fieldnotes. example, you might first enter a site and observe as a
nonparticipant, simply needing to look around in the
early phases of research. Then you slowly become
involved as a participant.
 The Process of Observing
1. Select a site to be observed.
2. Ease into the site slowly by looking around; getting general sense
of the site; and taking limited notes.
3. At the site, identify who, what, when to observe and how long to

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Field Issues
Procedures

observe.

Sampling
4. Determine, initially your role as an observer.

Types

Steps
5. Conduct multiple observations over time to obtain the best
understanding of the site and the individuals.
6. Design some means for recording notes during an observation.
7. Consider what information you will record during an observation.
8. Record descriptive and reflective notes.
9. During the observation, be introduced by someone if you are an
outsider or new to the setting.
10.After observing, thank the participants and inform them to use of
the data and the availability of a summary of results when you
complete the study.
 Types of Interviews and Open-ended
Question on Questionnaires
02
One-on-One Interviews
Observations
Interviews The most time consuming and costly approach is to
conduct individual interview.

Permissions
Focus Group Interviews
Field Issues
Procedures

Sampling
The process of collecting data through interviews with a
group of people, typically four to six.

Types

Steps
Occurs when researchers Telephone Interviews
ask one or more Gathering the data using telephone and asking a small
participants general, number of general questions.
open-ended questions
and record their answer. Email Interviews
The researcher then Collecting open-ended data through interviews with
transcribes and types the individuals using computers and the internet to do so.
data into a computer file
for analysis. Open-Ended Questions on Questionnaire
On questionnaires, you may ask some questions
that are closed ended and some that are open ended.
 Steps of Conducting Interviews
1. Identify the interviewees. (Use one of the purposeful sampling)
2. Determine the type of interview you will use.
3. During interview, audiotape the questions and responses.

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Field Issues
Procedures

Sampling
4. Take brief notes during the interview.

Types

Steps
5. Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the interview.
6. Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study.
7. Have a plan, but be flexible.
8. Use probes (sub-questions under each question that the researcher
use to elicit more information).
9. Be courteous and professional when the interview is over.
Complete the interview by thanking the participant, assuring
him/her of the confidentiality of the responses.
 Collecting Documents
03
1. Identify the types of documents
Observations
Document 2. Consider both public (e.g., school board minutes) and
private documents (e.g., personal diaries) as sources of
information for your research.

Permissions
Field Issues
Procedures

3. Once the documents are located, seek permission to

Sampling
use them from the appropriate individuals in charge of

Types

Steps
the materials.
Consist of public and 4. Provide specific instructions about the procedure (for
private records that personal journal): topics and format to use, the length
qualitative researchers of journal entries, and the importance of writing their
obtain about a site or thoughts legibly.
participant in a study, 5. Once you have permission to use documents, examine
and they can include them for completeness, and usefulness in answering
newspaper, personal the research questions in your study.
journals, and letters. 6. Record information from the documents. This process
can take several forms, including taking notes about
the documents or, if possible, optically scanning them.
 Collecting Audiovisual Materials
04
1. Determine what visual material can provide
Audiovisual
Observations information to answer research questions.
Materials 2. Identify the visual material available and obtain
permission to use it. This permission might

Permissions
Field Issues
Procedures

require asking all students in a classroom, for

Sampling
example, to sign informed consent forms and to

Types

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have their parents sign them also.
Consist of images or 3. Check the accuracy and authenticity of the
sounds that researchers visual material if you do not record it yourself.
collect to help them One way to check for accuracy is to contact and
understand the central interview the photographer or the individuals
phenomenon under study. represented in the pictures.
Such as photographs, 4. Collect the data and organize it.
videotapes, digital
images, paintings and
pictures.
 Procedures for Recording the Data

An Interview Protocols
It contains a header to record essential information about
the interview, statements about the purpose of the study, a
Field Issues

Permissions
reminder that participants need to sign the consent form,

Procedure

Sampling
and a suggestion to make preliminary tests of the

Types

Steps
recording equipment.

s
Following brief open-ended questions that allow
participants maximum flexibility for responding to the
questions. The first question serves the purpose of an
icebreaker (sometimes called the “grand tour” question),
to relax the interviewees and motivate them to talk. This
question should be easy to understand and cause the
participants to reflect on experiences that they can easily
discuss.
Field Issues An Interview Protocols

Procedure
s
Types
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Sampling
Steps
 Procedures for Recording the Data
Field Issues

An Observational Protocols

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Procedure

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Types
A form designed by the researcher before data

Steps
collection that is used for taking field-notes during an

s
observation. On this form, researchers record a
chronology of events, a detailed portrait of an
individual or individuals, a picture or map of the
setting.
 Procedures for Recording the Data
An Observational Protocols
 The protocol contains a header where you record information about the
time, place, setting, and your observational role.
 You write in two columns following the header. These columns divide
the page for recording into two types of data: a description of activities
Field Issues

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Procedure

Sampling
and a reflection about themes, quotes, and personal experiences of the
researcher.

Types

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 The exact nature of this description may vary. For example, you may

s
include a description of the chronological order of events. This
description is especially useful if the observer is examining a process or
event. You may also describe the individuals, physical setting, events,
and activities (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). You may also sketch a picture
of the site to facilitate remembering details of the setting for the final
written report.
 Reflective notes record your experiences as a researcher, such as your
hunches about important results and insights or emerging themes for
later analysis.
 Procedures for Recording the Data
An Observational Protocols
Field Issues

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Procedure

Sampling
Types

Steps
s
 Field Issues and Ethical Considerations in
Data Collection
Once the data collection procedures are in place, the qualitative inquirer collects data. Prior attention to
field issues that may occur will facilitate this process. The data also need to be collected ethically, with
sensitivity to individuals, populations being studied, and research sites.

Permissions
Procedures
Field Issues
References

Sampling
Types

Steps
References
Field Issues Data Collection

Field Issues
Procedures
Types
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Sampling
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 Field Issues in Data Collection

Field Issues Anticipation

Access Anticipate the amount of time it will take to recruit
participants to your study and the difficulty of recruitment.

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Procedures
Field Issues
References

Remind participants a day or two before data collection of the

Sampling
exact time and day you will observe or interview them.

Types

Steps
Observing Take time to record your notes immediately after you observe
so that you do not forget important details.

Interviews Prepare your equipment adequately. Check the functioning of

your equipment prior to your interview. Schedule your time so
that you cover all of the questions on your interview protocol.
Recognize that transcribing audiotape recordings takes
substantial time, and schedule for it in your research
plan.
 Field Issues in Data Collection

Field Issues Anticipation

Documents Anticipate the amount of time that may be required to locate,
obtain permission for, and secure both public and private

Permissions
documents for your research.

Procedures
Field Issues
References

Sampling
Audiovisual When you videotape, plan ahead to keep the room as quiet as

Types

Steps
Materials possible, place the camera where it will be least obtrusive, and
openly discuss with the participants whether they are
comfortable being videotaped. If you plan to collect
photographs from participants, give clear instructions about
what they need to photograph or the nature of the photographs
you will be collecting from them.
 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
To gain support from participants, you need to convey to participants
that they are participating in a study and inform them of the purpose of
the study.

Example of ethical issue likely to arise is whether you should share your

Permissions
Procedures
Field Issues
References

Sampling
experiences with participants in an interview setting, such as when,
during a study about adolescent smoking behavior with middle school

Types

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children, a researcher admits his own struggles with smoking.
Alternatively, researchers may “go native” and adopt practices of the
individuals they are studying—a problem if the study participants are
engaging in risky or inappropriate behavior. Along this same line, it may
be necessary to clearly define your role as a researcher (not a therapist
offering advice or a judge evaluating the circumstances) because of the
deep personal relationships that can form through the qualitative
research process (Patton, 2002)
Cresswell, J. W., (2012). Educational Research: Planning,
conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative

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Procedures
research (4th ed.) Boston, MA: Pearson.

Sampling
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Rod Laird Organisation (2012, July 9). Extreme or deviant case
sampling: an essential way to learn from both success and
failure. Rods Reflections. Retrieved July 16, 2012, from 
http://rodlaird.hostinguk.org/?page=1129