Map Projections

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Why Projection?
Earth is spherical.
One of the simplest way to map the earth
is to map on the globe.
Relative distances, angles and areas are
retained without distortion.
But mapping in a globe has various
disadvantages such as difficulties in
making and reproducing, handling,
storing and measuring.
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Why Projection? contd …
Hence, map must be produced in a flat
surface.
Converting spherical surface into flat
surface, 2 operations are performed:
 a. Alteration of scale
 b. Transformation of sphere to plane surface

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Definitions
This combination of scale alteration and
transformation is called map projection.
Map Projection, thus, is a mathematical
algorithm to transform locations defined
on the curved surface of the earth into
locations defined on the flat surface of a
map.

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It is important to note that the globe is the only true representation
of the spherical earth and any attempt to represent it on a flat
surface will result in some type of distortion.
This distortion can be illustrated by peeling an orange and
attempting to flatten large segments of peel. This cannot be done
without tears and separations in the peel―distortion of its original
spherical shape.
 Distortions on maps may affect the characteristics of the lines of
latitude and longitude, distances, direction, areas, and shapes of
features.
In most cases, the larger the area shown on a map, the greater will
be the distortion. The map user should always be aware of various
types of distortions to minimize their influence on how the map is
perceived

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Scale Distortion on a map

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Scale Distortion on a map

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Classification of Map Projections
Class Property
◦ Cylindrical Equal area
◦ Conical Equidistant
◦ Azimuthal Conformal
Projection plane Aspect
◦ Secant Normal
◦ Tangent Oblique
Transverse

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Class
Earth’ssurface projected on a map
wrapped around the globe as a cylinder
produces cylindrical map projection

Projected on a map formed into a cone

surface gives a conical map projection

When projected on a planar map it

produces an azimuthal map projection
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Types of projections

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Views of projected surface

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Developable Surface
Intermediate surface used to project
sphere.
Cylinder, cone, and plane.

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Class
Cylindrical Projection
The developable surface used for the projection is the
cylinder.
Meridians are geometrically projected onto the
cylindrical surface, and parallels are mathematically
projected, producing graticules angles of 90 degrees.
The cylinder is ‘cut’ along any meridian to produce the
final cylindrical projection. The meridians are equally
spaced, while the spacing between parallel lines of
latitude increases toward the poles. The Mercator
projection is one of the most common cylindrical
projections

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Class
Conical Projection
The developable surface used is the cone.
. The simplest conic projection is tangent to the globe
along a line of latitude. This line is called the standard
parallel.
The meridians are projected onto the conical surface,
meeting at the apex, or point, of the cone. Parallel lines
of latitude are projected onto the cone as rings.
 The cone is then ‘cut’ along any meridian to produce
the final conic projection, which has straight converging
lines for meridians and concentric circular arcs for
parallels.
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Class
Azimuthal Projection
When projected on a planar map, it produces an
azimuthal/zenithal map projection.
Azimuthal projections project map data onto a flat
surface touching the globe.
This type of projection is usually tangent to the globe at
one point but may be secant.
The point of contact may be the North Pole, the South
Pole, a point on the equator, or any point in between.
This point specifies the aspect and is the focus of the
projection. Possible aspects are polar, equatorial, and
oblique.
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Classification based on property
Conformal
 local shapes are preserved.
 To preserve individual angles
describing the spatial relationships, a
conformal projection must show
graticule lines intersecting at 90-
degree angles on the map. This is
accomplished by maintaining all
angles.
sacrificespreservation of area away
from standard point/lines No map
projection can preserve shapes of
larger regions.
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Equal Area or Equivalent
preserve area
 In equal area projections, the
meridians and parallels may not
intersect at right angles.
all areas are correctly sized
relative to one another
sacrificespreservation of shape
away from standard point/lines

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Equidistant
• distance from a single
location to all other
locations are preserved.
scale is correct from one to
all other points on the map,
or along all meridians
however, between other
points on map, scale is
incorrect
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compromise projection.
• A projection that does not have equal
area, conformal, or equidistant
characteristics. The compromise
projection is an attempt at balance
between these characteristics, and is often
used in thematic mapping

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Tangent or secant projection plane
Tangent – projection surface just touches
the globe.
Secant – projection surface intersects the
globe.

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 Standard line
Standard line
Standard line

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Classification based on Aspect

Planar Cylindrical Conical

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Aspects
Regular(Normal) – when the projection
surface is tangent or secant to the equator,
we term it as regular or normal.

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Aspects contd…
Transverse – when the projection surface
is tangent or secant to a meridian, it is
termed as transverse.

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Aspects contd…
Oblique – when the projection surface is
tangent or secant to any another point on
the globe, it is termed as oblique.

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Criteria for the selection of a Map
Projection
Shape of the area
 (determines the projection class).

Purpose of the map

 (determines the property of the projection).

Position of the area

 (determines the aspect of the projection).

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Shape of the area

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Purpose of the map
Conformal
 Maps which require measuring angles (aeronautical
charts, topographic maps).
Equivalent
 Maps which require measuring areas (cadastral
maps in case of area only).
Equidistant
 Maps which require measuring distance with
reasonable area and angle of distortion (several
thematic maps).

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Position of the area

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Choosing a map projection
The ideal map projection for any country would
be a cylindrical, conical or azimuthal projection,
depending on the country’s shape, with a secant
projection plane located along the country’s
main axis. The property of the map projection
depends on the purpose of the map and location
of country.

Large size Small

Rectangular Area Medium size
Triangular Area Circular
Eg. Russia Area

Cylindrical Conical Azimuthal

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Map Projection Parameters
Angular parameter
1. Central meridian
2. Latitude of origin
3. Standard parallel
Linear parameter
1. False Easting
2. False Northing
3. Scale Factor

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Central meridian
• Every projection has a central meridian, which is
the middle longitude of the projection.
• In most projections, it runs down the middle of the
map and the map is symmetrical on either side of it.
• It may or may not be a line of true scale. (True
scale means no distance distortion.) The central
meridian is also called the longitude of origin or
the longitude of center.
• Its intersection with the latitude of origin defines
the starting point of the projected map coordinates
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Latitude of origin
Every projection also has a latitude of
origin. The intersection of this line with
the central meridian is the starting point of
the projected coordinates. The latitude of
origin may or may not be the middle
latitude of the projection and may or may
not be a line of true scale

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Standard Lines or Standard Parallels
In tangent case, globe touches cylinder or
cone along a single line called standard line.
Standard line has no distortion, but
distortion increases away from it.
In normal aspect of cylinder, standard line
is equator.
In secant case of cylindrical or conical
projection, there are two standard parallels.

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False Easting and False Northing
Since the natural origin may give rise to
negative coordinates over parts of the
map.
This origin is usually given false
coordinates which are large enough to
avoid this inconvenience, called False
Easting and False Northing.

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Scale factor
SF = Map Distance / Globe Distance
◦ Different at each point on projection
◦ May have different values in each direction
◦ If k = 1, no distortion at all

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Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Projection
Based on a transverse cylindrical projection,
Transverse Mercator, in which the touches the
reference globe along a chosen meridian.
Introduced by US Army Map Service in the
1957.
Consists of 60 zones of longitude. Each zone
has a width of six degrees of longitude
Zones are numbered sequentially from west to
east, starting with 1. Zone 1= 180ºW to
174ºW, with CM 177ºW
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Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Projection contd…
Zones are further divided into rows with a
height of 8 degrees. These are assigned
with letters from South to North starting
 800 S Latitude to 840 N latitude with the
letter ‘C’.
The scale factor varies from 0.9996 at the
central meridian
Most common system of projection used
for large scale mapping around the world.
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UTM Zones

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Projection system in Nepal
Nepal has larger east west extension so to obtain fine
result in accuracy for cadastral mapping and other
purposes, UTM has been modified to MUTM(Modified
UTM)
In this projection system Earth is divided in 120 zones
each of 30
3 zones cover Nepal with central meridians at 81 0, 840,
870
Scale factor of 0.9999
False easting at central meridian is 500 000 m. and false
northing at the Equator is 0 m  in order to keep all the
coordinates within the country positive.
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Instrumental orientation
Instrumental Orientation refers to the process
of determining the positions and direction of
instrumental stations relative to each other and
to a specified coordinate system.
Way of orientating instrument depend upon the
type of instrument used
For the traditional surveying technique like
plane table surveying, compass surveying,
magnetic needle or compass is used to orient the
instrument toward the magnetic north

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 Instrument like theodolite, plane table
orientation is done by backsighting
(orientation based on previously measured
station) are used to orient the instrument
In the modern instrument like Total
station, coordinates of instrument station
and another known station are inserted
directly to orient the instrument

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