Psikologi Belajar dan Kognitif

Classical Conditioning
Session 3 - 6
 Learning Outcomes
• Explain the basic concepts of classical conditioning,
reinforcement and punishment, and observational learning
• Give examples of classical conditioning, reinforcement and
punishment, and observational learning in daily life
• Explain the concepts of cognitive psychology and its relation
to learning process
• Explain the application of cognitive psychology theories in
daily life

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 At the previous chapter we’ve learned :
• Elicited behavior is one that is automatically drawn out by a certain
stimulus.
• Reflexes are the most basic form of elicited behavior which are
automatically responded to a certain stimulus.
The first figure that offer the mechanistic explanation about human
behavior  René Descartes.
The simple mechanism – a receptor activating a muscle through a
direct, innate connection – Descartes called a reflex.
Descartes proposed that reflexes underlie all automatic, involuntary
reaction  he was not prepared to allow a similar determinism in the
operation of the mind.

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• Theoretical approaches to the study of
learning have their roots in the
philosophy of René Descartes (1596–
1650)

• Before Descartes, most people thought of

human behavior as entirely determined
by conscious intent and free will.

• People’s actions were not considered to

be controlled by external stimuli or
mechanistic natural laws

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 Cartesian
Dualism

Involuntary Voluntary
behavior behavior

Occurs because of person’s

Automatic reactions to Mediated by specific
conscious intent to act in
external stimuli mechanism called reflex
particular manner

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 NATIVISM EMPIRICISM

John Locke: human beings were born

Descartes: we are born with innate
without any preconceptions about the
ideas about certain things
world (tabularasa)

Mind didn’t function in a

All ideas are originated from experiences
predictable and orderly manner

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 • John Locke  argued that our minds at birth are tabula rasa or blank
state. Ideas could only be acquired through experience.
• Locke  sensation that occur together become associated so if one
of these sensation recurs it will automatically elicit the other.
• The Laws of Association :
– Contiguity : the closer in time two events occured, the more
strongly they would be associated.
– Frequency : the more often two events occured together, the
more strongly they would be associated.
– The intensity of the feelings that accompanied the association
determine the strength of an association.

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 Classical Conditioning

Process in which one stimulus that does

not elicit a response is associated with a
second stimulus that does. As a result, the
first stimulus also comes to elicit a
response.

In the decades that followed, Pavlov discovered most

of the basic principles of classical conditioning and
explored their application in such diverse areas as
personality, hypnosis, sleep, and psychopatology.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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 Before Conditioning Before Conditioning

Unconditioned Netral Stimulus

Unconditioned
Response (UR) (NS)
Stimulus (US)
Unlearned (innate reaction)

During Conditioning After Conditioning

Each pairing of the NS and US during

conditioning is called conditioning trial. Conditioned Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) Response (CR)
 Food  Salivation
• Before Conditioning US UR
Bell  NoSalivation
NS
• During Conditioning
Bell: Food  Salivation
NS(or CS) US UR

• After Conditioning Bell  Salivation

CS CR

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 Dog: Bite  Fear
NS US UR

Dog  Fear
CS CR

CR is at most only similar to the UR.

Sometimes CR is quite different.

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Appetitive Conditioning
• US is considered pleasant and
organism seeks out: food,
addictive drugs, sexual stimuli
Classical conditioning can transform a normally aversive stimulus into
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Types of Conditioning
Aversive Conditioning
• US is considered unpleasant and
organism avoids: electric shock,
painful bite, unpleasant odor
• Aversive conditioning occurs rapidly
 related with survival
• Accounts for many of our fears and
anxieties
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 Basic Phenomena: Acquisition
• Acquisition: process of developing and strengthening a CR through
repeated pairings of NS and US.
• Maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in a particular
situation is known as asymptote.
• Asymptote and speed of conditioning are dependent on intensity of
US and NS.
– more intense  more stronger and rapid conditioning
– ex: large amount of food is more intense as US; high pitch bell
is more intense as NS

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 Basic Phenomena: Extinction
• Extinction: procedure in which the repeated presentation of the CS is no
longer followed by US  decrease of CR.
• Once a CR has been extinguished, doesn’t mean that the effect of
conditioning has been completely eliminated  can be rapidly
reacquired when CS is again paired with US.
• Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of CR following a rest period
after extinction.
• Spontaneous recovery doesn’t last forever. In general, each time the
response recovers it is somewhat weaker and is extinguished more
quickly than before.

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 Basic Phenomena: Extinction
The Concept of Inhibition
Pairing of the CS and the US establish an excitatory connection.

CS were then presented on its own establish inhibitory connection

Notes :
During conditioning  excitatory connection is established between CS and US.
During extinction  a parallel inhibitory connection is developed.

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 Basic Phenomena: Extinction
The Renewal Effect
A response that appeared to have been extinguished, returned or renewed
because the environment changes  renewal effect.

The differences between spontaneous recovery and renewal effect :

• In the spontaneous recovery  the passage of time that leads the response
reappearing
• In the renewal effect  the change in the environmental context that leads
the response reappearing

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 Other Phenomena
Stimulus generalization
• Tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus
that is similar to CS
• Physically or non-physically similar

Stimulus discrimination
• tendency for a response to be elicited more by one
stimulus than another
Bell song A: Food  Salivation Bell song A  Salivation
NS US UR CS+ CR
Bell song B: No Food Bell song B  No Salivation
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 Other Phenomena
Second-order Conditioning
A stimulus that is associated with a CS can
also become a CS.

CS2 generally elicits a weaker response than

the CS1
 indirectly assocciated.

Higher order conditioning is commonly used

in advertising.

Advertisements often pair a company name or

product with object, events, or people that
have been conditioned to elicit positive
emotional response.
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 Other Phenomena

Counterconditioning
Another way to eliminate a
conditioned response.
 Pair the CS that elicited
CR with a US that elicited
a different response.

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 Examples of Specificity in Classical Conditioning:
Overshadowing, Blocking, Latent Inhibition

• Procedures in which conditioning occurs to specific stimuli

only, despite close pairing of other stimuli with US.
• Involving compound stimulus  consists of simultaneous
presentation of two or more individual stimuli.

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 The most salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily
Overshadowing conditioned as CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the
least salient member

Bright light Low pitch bell

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Blocking •Presence of an established CS interferes with conditioning
of a new CS.
•Compound consists of a NS and CS rather than two NS that
differ in salience.

Bright light Low pitch bell

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 A familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS
Latent Inhibition than is an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus.

So many times

This process prevents the development of conditioned associations to

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redundant stimuli in environment. 24
 Applications of Classical Conditioning
Phobias
• A particularly salient way that classical conditioning affects our lives is
through its involvement in the development of fears and anxiety.
• A conditioned fear response can be elicited by a previously neutral
stimulus that has been associated with an aversive stimulus.
• Irrational fear reactions are known as phobias. In many cases, these
phobias seem to represent a process of overgeneralization, in which a
conditioned fear response to one event has become overgeneralized to
other harmless events.

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 Applications of Classical Conditioning
Phobias
• Watson and Raynor (1920) study in which they conditioned “Little
Albert” to fear a white rat. At the end of their report, they suggested that
fear conditioning in children of the kind that they had demonstrated
might explain many of the phobias and anxiety found in adults.

• Real-life phobia usually take only one pairing of US and CS, and often
grow stronger over time. Some phobics cannot recall any traumatic
incidents  people’s memories for painful incidents are surprisingly
poor.

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• Some degree of control over important events control
seemed to effectively immunize against traumatic History of
effects of frightening things.
• Genetically based predisposition to learn certain Preparedness
kinds of associations more easily than others
• Individual base level of emotionality and reactivity
to stimulation
Temperament
• Genetically determined
• Many phobia acquired through fearful reactions in
Learning
others.
Observational
Additional Factors in Phobic Conditioning
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• Genetically based predisposition to learn certain kinds
Sensitization
of associations more easily than others
Selective
• Individual base level of emotionality and reactivity to Revaluation
stimulation US
• Genetically determined
• Strengthening of CR as a result of brief exposure to the
aversive CS (because avoiding behavior). Incubation
• Covert exposures to the feared stimulus (ex: worrying about
it) could also lead to incubation.
Additional Factors in Phobic Conditioning
 Applications of Classical Conditioning
Treating Phobias
Systematic Desensitization Exposure Therapy
• Eliminating fear with the • The limitation of systematic
association of the feared stimulus desensitization is that the
with a pleasurable experience. conditioned stimulus is imagined 
• Using the counterconditioning when patient encountered the
procedure (Pavlov), Mary C. Jones stimulus in real, they still fearful.
(1924) apply this strategy to human • Exposure treatment  patients are
(a boy named Peter). exposed the stimuli that actually
• In 1958, Joseph Wolpe develop a frighten them gradually.
therapy called Systematic • Exposure is closer to
Desensitization  the technique straightforward extinction.
was similar but he used relaxation

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 Applications of Classical Conditioning
Aversion Therapy
• The goal is not to eliminate fear but rather to harness it to procedure
avoidance of a harmful situation.

• Typically used for alcoholism or problem behavior.

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 Conditioning Principles and Theories
Rescorla-Wagner Theory
Attempted to explain the effect of each conditioning trial on the
strength (called associative value) of the CS in its relationship to
the US.

A given US can support only so much conditioning, and this

amount of conditioning must be distributed among various CSs
available.

Stronger US support more conditioning than do weaker US.

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 Tone (V =0): Food (Max = 10)  Salivation
Tone (V=10)  Salivation

How about if we give compound stimulus?

[Tone + Light ](V =0): Food (Max = 10)  Salivation
[Tone + Light ](V=10)  Salivation

This associative value, however, must somehow be distributed.

Lets say: Tone (V =6)  Salivation

Light (V =4)  Salivation
Which CS that is more salient (stronger CS)?
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• This model can explain the overshadowing and blocking
procedure we’ve learned in previous session.
Overshadowing:
[Loud tone + faint light] (V=0): Food (Max = 10)  Salivation
Loud tone (V =9)  ??
Faint light (V =1)  ??

Blocking:
Tone (V=10)  Salivation
[Tone + Light] (V=10+0=10): Food (Max = 10)  Salivation
Tone  ?? Light  ??
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To say that a CS has high associative value is similar to saying that it is
a strong predictor of US.
One strongly “expects” the US whenever it encounters CS.
Overexpectation Effect
 The decrease in the CR that occurs when two separately conditioned
CSs are combined into compound stimulus for further pairing with US.

Tone (V=10)  Salivation Light (V=10)  Salivation

Light (V=5)  Salivation

Tone + Light (V=10)  Salivation
Tone (V=5)  Salivation

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 • When uncle Bob and aunt Shirley were separated, they each
gave Lucas great birthday presents, with the result that he
developed strong positive feelings for both of them. Then
they resolved their difficulties and got back together. They
now give Lucas one great present from two of them. What do
you think happened with Lucas attitudes towards them?

• A says that if you are deeply in love with someone, you will
necessarily be much less interested in anyone else. B thinks
that there is no reason why someone cant be deeply in love
with more than one person at a time. Which one do you think
is correct according to Rescorla-Wagner theory?

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