INTRODUCTION

TO RESEARCH
Research
the systematic investigation into and
study of materials and sources in order
to establish facts and reach new
conclusions.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL.

COPYRIGHT ©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS Slide 2
RESERVED.
Educational Research
- refers to the systematic collection and
analysis of data related to the field of
education. ... 

Educational researchers generally agree

that research should be rigorous and systematic.
However, there is less agreement about specific standards,
criteria and research procedures.

WKIPEDIA Slide 3
Three Objectives of Educational
Research:
1. to explore issues and find answers to questions
(for academics)
2. to share policy
(e.g. relationships between education / work/training,
for policy makers)
3. to improve practice
(for practitioners)

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL.

COPYRIGHT ©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS Slide 4
RESERVED.
 Research as a Scientific
Method
When conducting research, scientists use the
scientific method to collect measurable, empirical
evidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis
(often in the form of an if/then statement), the
results aiming to support or contradict a theory.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL.

COPYRIGHT ©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS Slide 5
RESERVED.
Educational research is important because of
contributing knowledge development, practical
improvement, and policy information.
Therefore, educators can use
those research findings to improve their
competences and teaching and learning process
(Yulirahmawati, 2008).

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL.

COPYRIGHT ©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS Slide 6
RESERVED.
RESEARCH
VARIABLES,
Definition of a Variable
A Variable
(A Characteristic or Attribute)
Can be and

Measured
Varies
(Can be assessed (Can assume
on an instrument different values
and recorded on or
an instrument) scores for
different
individuals)
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL. COPYRIGHT
©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Slide 8
Variables and Constructs
A Variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied
way
A Construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract,
general way.

Construct Student Achievement

Variable Grade Point Average

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL. COPYRIGHT

©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Slide 9
Categorical and Continuous
Scores
A categorical score is a value of a variable assigned by the researcher
into a small number of categories. (e.g. Gender)

A continuous variable is the value of a variable assigned by the

researcher to a point along a continuum of scores, from low to high.
(e.g. Age)

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL. COPYRIGHT

©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Slide 10
Variables
Independent Variable: An attribute or characteristic that influences or
effects an outcome of the independent variable.
Dependent Variables: An attribute or characteristic influenced by the
independent variable.

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL. COPYRIGHT

©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Slide 11
Theories as Bridges Between
Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent Dependent
Variables Variables

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH BY JOHN W. CRESWELL. COPYRIGHT

©2002 BY PEARSON EDUCATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. Slide 12
PURPOSE
STATEMENTS
&
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
PURPOSE STATEMENTS
Statement that advances the overall direction or focus for the
study.
Researchers describe the purpose of a study in one or more
succinctly formed sentences.
It is used both in quantitative and qualitative research and is
typically found in the “statement of the problem” section. It often
appears as the last sentence of an introduction
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Questions in quantitative or qualitative research that narrow the
purpose statement to specific questions that researchers seek to
answer.
Researchers typically develop them before identifying the methods
of the study.
Researchers typically state multiple research questions so that they
can fully explore a topic
IMPORTANCE OF PURPOSE STATEMENTS
& RESEARCH QUESTIONS
These statements are signposts similar to a thesis statement or
objectives in term papers you may have written.
You can also identify the most appropriate methods for collecting
data from the purpose and the questions.
 It also provide key components for understanding the results of a
project
PURPOSE
STATEMENTS
&
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating
numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics.
EXAMPLE:
TOPIC: Addressing teacher–parent communications and student
achievement
PURPOSE STATEMENT:
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between use of
Internet communication between teachers and parents in a Midwestern
school district and student achievement on tests in high school social
studies.
RESEARCH QUESTION:
Do parent–teacher Internet communications affect student performance in
the classroom?
 Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
GUIDELINES:

Write the purpose statement in a single sentence.

Begin the statement with key identifier words, such as “The purpose of this
study,” to clearly signal readers.
If you plan to use a theory, introduce it in this statement by stating that you
plan to “test a theory.”
Three options exist for using variables in the statement:
1. to relate two or more variables
2. to compare a variable composed of two or more groups in terms of the
dependent variable,
3. to describe one variable
 Writing Quantitative Purpose
Statements
GUIDELINES:

If variables are related or groups compared, specify the independent and
dependent variables and any control or intervening variables.
State the independent variable first (first position in the sentence), followed by
the dependent variable (second position in the sentence). If control or
mediating variables are used, state them last (in the third position in the
sentence).
Identify the participants to be studied and the research site at which they will
be studied.
AND
INTERVENING
VARIABLES
A control variable is a independent variable that is important to consider and
“neutralize” because it potentially influences the dependent variable.
Typically, control variables are personal demographic attributes or
characteristics. Like, gender, socio-economic, intelligence, and race.
An intervening variable is an attribute or characteristic that “stands between”
the independent and dependent variables and exercises an influence on the
dependent variable apart from the independent variable.

Independent Variable --- > Intervening variable --- > Dependent Variable
Poverty ---- > Lack of access to Health care ----- > Shorter Longevity
Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
Sample Scripts:
To relate two or more variables:
The purpose of this study is to test Fines’ theory (1996) by relating
leadership style (independent variable) to autonomy (dependent variable) for
teachers (participants) in high schools in State X (research site).
To compare a variable composed of two or more groups in terms of the
dependent variable,
The purpose of this study is to test Smart’s theory (1999) by comparing
autocratic leaders (group 1) with consensus-building leaders (group 2) in terms
of the satisfaction of teachers (dependent variable) in colleges in State X
(research site).
 Writing Quantitative Purpose Statements
Sample Scripts :
To describe one variable
The purpose of this study is to describe the effect of leadership experience
(independent variable) on sales volume (dependent variable) produced by
hourly employees (participants) at a major retail center in central Florida
(research site).
 Writing Quantitative Research Questions
GUIDELINES:
Pose a question
Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why”
Specify the independent, dependent, and mediating or control variables
Use the words describe, compare, or relate to indicate the action or connection
among the variables
Indicate the participants and the research site for the study
Writing Quantitative Research Questions
Sample Scripts:
 Relationship Questions
How do feelings of isolation (independent variable) relate to the ethnic
identity (dependent variable) of African Americans (participants) in the
United States (research site)?
 Comparison Questions
How do African Americans (group 1) and Euro Americans (group 2)
compare in their perceptions of ethnic identity (dependent variable) ?
 Descriptive Questions
How frequently do African Americans (participants) feel isolated
(variable) on college campuses (research site)?
PURPOSE
STATEMENTS
&
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an
understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations.
EXAMPLE:
TOPIC: Addressing teacher–parent communications and student
achievement
PURPOSE STATEMENT:
The purpose of this study is to explore parent stories regarding Internet
communications with teachers about their students in one Midwestern
school district.
RESEARCH QUESTION:
What types of Internet experiences do parents have with teachers about the
performance of the parents’ children?
Writing Qualitative Purpose
Statements
GUIDELINES:
Use key identifier words to signal the reader, such as “The purpose of
this study is . . .”
Consider mentioning that the study is “qualitative” since audiences may
not be familiar with qualitative research.
Become familiar with qualitative research designs, and indicate the type
of research design you plan to use in your study.
State the central phenomenon you plan to explore.
Use words that convey intent about the exploration, such as explore,
discover, understand, and describe.
Mention the participants in the study.
Refer to the research site where you will study the participants.
Writing Qualitative Purpose Statements
Sample Scripts:

The purpose of this qualitative study is to describe classroom learning

using the Internet for five high-school students participating in a sign
language class.

If we analyze this example, we find:

The central phenomenon: classroom learning using the Internet
The participants: five high-school students
The research site: a class in sign language
Writing Qualitative Research Questions
GUIDELINES:
Expect your qualitative questions to change and to emerge during a study to
reflect the participants’ views of the central phenomenon and your growing
(and deeper) understanding of it.
Ask only a few, general questions. Five to seven questions are enough to
permit the participants to share information.
Ask questions that use neutral, exploratory language and refrain from
conveying an expected direction.
Design and write two types of qualitative research questions: the central
question and sub questions.
 Writing Qualitative Research Questions
GUIDELINES and SAMPLE SCRIPT
:
Central Question
 Begin with the word how or what rather than why so that you do not suggest probable
cause-and-effect relationships as in quantitative research but instead suggest exploration in
qualitative research.
 Specify the central phenomenon you plan to explore.
 Identify the participants in the study.
 Mention the research site for the study.

Sample Script:
What is creativity (central phenomenon) for five students (participants) at Roosevelt High
School (research site) ?
Writing Qualitative Research Questions
GUIDELINES and SAMPLE SCRIPT:
Sub Questions
 Refine the central question into sub-questions to be addressed in the research
 Open ended, emerging, neutral in language, and few in number but they provide greater
specificity to the questions in the study.
 Preliminary conversations or interviews with your participants can provide useful leads for
these sub-questions.
 Writers refer to these sub-questions as issue and procedural sub-questions
Writing Qualitative Research Questions
GUIDELINES and SAMPLE SCRIPTS:
Writing Qualitative Research Questions
GUIDELINES and SAMPLE SCRIPTS:
DEVELOPING
HYPOTHESIS
&
RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
Definitions of hypothesis

“Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches –

assumed for use in devising theory or planning experiments
intended to be given a direct experimental test when possible”.
(Eric Rogers, 1966)

“A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between

two or more variables”. (Kerlinger, 1956)

“Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected

relationship between an independent and dependent
variable.”(Creswell, 1994)

“A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form

of a question.”
Definitions of hypothesis
“It is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship
between two or more variables.”

“A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative explanation of the

research problem, a possible outcome of the research, or an
educated guess about the research outcome.” (Sarantakos,
1993: 1991)

“Hypotheses are always in declarative sentence form, an they

relate, either generally or specifically , variables to variables.”

“An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested

by knowledge or observation but has not, yet, been proved or
disproved.” (Macleod Clark J and Hockey L 1981)
Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be
investigated. It should be specified before research is conducted
and openly stated in reporting the results. This allows to:
Identify the research objectives

Identify the key abstract concepts involved in the research

Identify its relationship to both the problem statement and the literature review

A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to

hypothesis form

It is a powerful tool of advancement of knowledge, consistent with

existing knowledge and conducive to further enquiry
Nature of Hypothesis

It can be tested – verifiable or falsifiable

Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions
It is neither too specific nor to general
It is a prediction of consequences
It is considered valuable even if proven false
Types of Hypotheses

NULL HYPOTHESES
Designated by: H0 or HN Pronounced
as “H oh” or “H-null”

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
Designated by: H1 or HA
 The null hypothesis represents a theory that has
been put forward, either because it is believed to be
true or because it is to be used as a basis for
argument, but has not been proved.
Has serious outcome if incorrect decision is made!

The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what

a hypothesis test is set up to establish.
Opposite of Null Hypothesis.
Only reached if H0 is rejected.
Frequently “alternative” is actual desired conclusion
of the researcher!
EXAMPLE

In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is
no better, on average, than the current drug.
We would write H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on
average.

The alternative hypothesis might be that:

the new drug has a different effect, on average, compared to that of the current
drug.
We would write H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average.

the new drug is better, on average, than the current drug.

We would write H1: the new drug is better than the current drug, on
average.
What is Research
Objective? 
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative
statement, which provides direction to investigate the
variables. 

Generally research objective focus on the ways to

measure the variables , such as to identify or describe
them. 

Sometime objectives are directed towards identifying the

relationship or difference between two variables. 
What is Research
Objective? 
Research objective are the results sought by the researcher at the end
of the research process, i.e. what the researcher will be able to achieve
at the end of the research study. 
The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved
by the study. 
Objective should be closely related to the statement of the problem. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 
Research objectives is a concrete statement describing what the
research is trying to achieve. A well-worded objective will be SMART, i.e
Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, & Time-bound. 

Research objective should be Relevant, Feasible, Logical, Observable,

Unequivocal & Measurable. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 
Objective is a purpose that can be reasonably achieved within the
expected timeframe &with the available resources. 
The objective or research project summarizes what is to be achieved by
the study. 
The research objectives are the specific accomplishment the
researchers hopes to achieve by the study. 
The objective include obtaining answers to research questions or testing
the research hypothesis. 
Why need Research
Objectives? 
The formulation of research objectives will help researcher to: 

With clearly defined objectives, the researchers can focus on the study. 

Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for
understanding & solving problem that he or she has defined. 
Why need Research
Objectives? 
The formulation of objectives organize the study in clearly defined parts
or phases. 

Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development

of research methodology & will help to orient the collection, analysis,
interpretation, &utilization of data. 
Types of Research
Objectives 
General Objective 
General objectives are broad goals to be achieved. 
The general objectives of the study state what the researcher expects to
achieve by the study in general terms. 
General objectives are usually less in number. 
Types of Research
Objectives 
Specific objectives
Specific objectives are short term & narrow in focus
General objectives can broken into small logically connected parts to
form specific objectives.
General objective is met through accomplishing all the specific
objective.
The specific objectives are more in number & they
systematically address various aspects of problem as
defined under ‘the statement of problem & key factor that
is assumed to influence or causes the problem.
They should specify what the researcher will do in the
study, where, & for what purpose.
Examples of General &
Specific Objectives
Research Statement: “Effectiveness of planned teaching on the
knowledge of staff nurses working in psychiatric unit regarding Physical
Restraints for psychiatric patient in selected hospital of Vidharbha
region”

General objective: To asses the knowledge of staff nurses working in

psychiatric unit regarding physical restraint .
Specific objective:
To assess the knowledge regarding Physical Restraints among nurses
working in psychiatric unit.
To evaluate the effect of planned teaching on Physical Restraints among
nurses.
To associate the knowledge with selected demographic.
References:
1.http://www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/hypothesis
2.https://www.slideshare.net/myotakustyle/research-objective-
59798245