Statistics For Business and Economics: 7 Edition

Statistics for
Business and Economics

7th Edition
Chapter 1
Describing Data: Graphical
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall Ch. 1-1
Introduction
 What are the projected sales of new product

such as Apple’s new iPhone?
 Who will win the next presidential elections?
 What will be the best jobs available when you
graduate from the university?
Numbers are used to predict or forecast sales of

a new product, the weather, the election etc.
1.1
Dealing with Uncertainty
 Numbers and data are used to assist

decision making.
 Once the data are collected, what do we

do with them?
 Statistics is a tool to help us process, summarize,

analyze, and interpret data for the purpose of
making better decisions in an uncertain environment…
Dealing with Uncertainty
Everyday decisions are based on incomplete

information…
 Accountants may need to select a portion of records for auditing
purposes…
 Financial investors need to understand the market’s fluctuations
and they need to choose between various portfolio investments..
 Managers may use surveys to find out if customers are satisfied
with company’s products or services…
Define the problem / determine what data are needed /

collect the data / use the statistics to summarize the
data / make inferences and decisions based on the data
obtained
Managers need an understanding of statistics
for the following four key reasons:
 To know how to properly present and describe

information.
 To know how to draw conclusions about large
populations based only on information obtained from
samples.
 To know how to improve processes.
 To know how to obtain reliable forecasts.
Key Definitions
1.2
 A population is the collection of all items of interest

or under investigation
 N represents the population size
 so large to analyze
 Collecting complete information for a population could be
impossible or expensive
 Time consuming
 A sample is an observed subset of the population

 n represents the sample size
Reasons for Drawing a Sample
 A sample is less time consuming than a census.
 A sample is less costly to administer than a census.
 A sample is less cumbersome and more practical to

administer than a census of the targeted population.
Examples of Populations
 Names of all registered voters in the United States
 Incomes of all families living in Daytona Beach
 Annual returns of all stocks traded on the New York

Stock Exchange
 Grade point averages of all the students in your

university
Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a procedure in which
 each member of the population is chosen strictly by

chance,
 each member of the population is equally likely to be
chosen,
The resulting sample is called a random sample
 A parameter is a specific characteristic of a
population
 A statistic is a specific characteristic of a sample

Population vs. Sample
Population Sample
a b cd b c
ef gh i jk l m n gi n
o p q rs t u v w o r u
x y z y
Values calculated using Values computed from

population data are called sample data are called
parameters statistics
To think statistically
 Define the problem.
 What information is required?
 What is the relevant population?
 How should sample members be selected?
 How should information be obtained from the sample
members?
 Use sample information to make decisions about

population of interest.
 Draw the conclusion about the population.

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Two branches of statistics:

 Descriptive statistics
 Graphical and numerical procedures to summarize
and process data
 Inferential statistics
 Using data to make predictions, forecasts, and
estimates to assist decision making
Descriptive Statistics
 Collect data
 e.g., Survey
 Present data
 e.g., Tables and graphs
 Summarize data
 e.g., Sample mean = X i
Inferential Statistics
 Estimation
 e.g., Estimate the population
mean weight using the sample

mean weight
 Hypothesis testing
 e.g., Test the claim that the
population mean weight is 140

pounds
Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or

making decisions about a population based on
sample results
Classification of Variables
 Variable
specific characteristics of an individual or
object…
 Categorical / numerical
(type and amount of information contained in
the data)
 Measurement levels
(qualitative and quantitative)
Types of Data
Examples:
 Marital Status
 Are you registered to vote?
 Eye Color
(Defined as categories or groups) Examples: Examples:
 Number of Children  Weight
 Defects per hour  Voltage
(Counted items) (Measured characteristics)
(counting process) (measurement process)
Types of Data
There is no measurable
meaning to the
“difference” in numbers.
Obtained from ordered categories.
Obtained from categorical questions Examples:
Examples:  Product quality ratings
 1: male 2: female 1: poor 2: average 3:good
 1: yes 2: no
Satisfaction rating with university food

service
1: very dissatisfied
2: moderately dissatisfied
3: no opinion
4: moderately satisfied
5: very satisfied
Indicates rank and distance from an Indicates both rank and distance from a
arbitrary zero measured in unit natural zero, with ratios of two
intervals. measures having meaning.
Examples: Examples:
 Temperature  A person who weighs 200 pounds is
twice the weight of a person who
 Year / calendar
weighs 100 pounds.
 A person who is 40 years old is twice
the age of someone who is 20 years
old.
1.3 Graphical
Presentation of Data
 Data in raw form are usually not easy to

use for decision making
 Some type of organization is needed
 Table
 Graph
 The type of graph to use depends on the

variable being summarized
Graphical
(continued)
 Techniques reviewed in this chapter:
Categorical Numerical
Variables Variables
• Frequency distribution • Line chart

• Bar chart • Frequency distribution
• Pie chart • Histogram and ogive
• Pareto diagram • Stem-and-leaf display
• Scatter plot
Tables and Graphs for
Categorical Variables
Categorical
Data
Tabulating Data Graphing Data
Frequency
Distribution Bar Pie Pareto
Table Chart Chart Diagram
The Frequency
Distribution Table
 Used to organize data..

 Summarize data by category…
- list of frequencies or
- number of observations…
- Classes or groups..
- All possible responses on a
variable being studied…
The Frequency
Distribution Table
Example: Hospital Patients by Unit
Hospital Unit Number of Patients

Cardiac Care 1,052
Emergency 2,245
Intensive Care 340
(Variables are
categorical) Maternity 552
Surgery 4,630
Bar and Pie Charts
 Bar charts and Pie charts are often used for
qualitative (categorical) data
 If our intent is to draw attention to the

frequency of each category, we will most likely
draw a bar chart..
 If we want to draw attention to the portion of

frequencies in each category, we will probably
use pie chart..
Bar Chart Example
Hospital Number
Unit of Patients
Hospital Patients by Unit
Cardiac Care 1,052 5000 4630
Emergency 2,245
patients per year

4000
Intensive Care 340
Number of
Maternity 552 3000
2245
Surgery 4,630
2000
1052
1000 552
340
Cardiac
Emergency
Maternity
Surgery
Intensive
Care
Care
Height of bar shows
the frequency of
each category
Example: Health conscious level by gender
Males Females
Very health conscious 16 13
Moderately health 26 29
conscious
Slightly health 12 8
conscious
Not very health 7 2
conscious
Component or Stacked Bar Chart
Males Females
Very health 16 13
conscious
Moderately health 26 29
conscious
Slightly health 12 8
conscious
Not very health 7 2
conscious 60
50
40 29
female
30
male
13
20
8
26
10 16 2
12
7
0
very health moderately slightly health not very
conscious health conscious health
conscious conscious
Cluster Bar Chart
35
30 29
26
very health conscious
25
20 moderately health
16 conscious
15 slightly health
12 13
conscious
10 8 not very healt
7 conscious
5
2
0
male female
Pie Chart Example
Hospital Number % of
Unit of Patients Total
Hospital Patients by Unit
Cardiac Care 1,052 11.93
Emergency 2,245 25.46 Cardiac Care
12%
Intensive Care 340 3.86
Maternity 552 6.26
Surgery 4,630 52.50
Emergency
Surgery 25%
53%
size of pie slice shows

Intensive Care
percentage for each 4%
category
Maternity
6%
(Percentages are rounded to

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall the nearest percent) Ch. 1-32
Pareto Diagram
 Used to portray categorical data
 Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto
 In the most cases a small number of factors are
responsible for most of the problems.
 Used to separate the “vital few” from the “trivial
many”
 80-20 Rule
“A student might think that 80% of the work on a

group project was done by only 20% of the team
members”
 Managers / identfy major causes of the
problem / correct them with a minimum cost
 A bar chart, where categories are shown in
descending order of frequency
 A cumulative polygon is often shown in the
same graph
Pareto Diagram: Cause of Manufacturing Defect
60% 100%
90%
50%
80%
70%
40%
60%
30% 50%
40%
20%
30%
20%
10%
10%
0% 0%
Poor Alignment Paint Flaw Bad Weld Missing Part Cracked case Electrical Short
The most indicate the causes with the

frequent causes decreasing frequencies
Pareto Diagram Example
Example: 400 defective items are examined
for cause of defect:
Source of
Manufacturing Error Number of defects
Bad Weld 34
Poor Alignment 223
Missing Part 25
Paint Flaw 78
Electrical Short 19
Cracked case 21
Total 400
(continued)
Step 1: Sort by defect cause, in descending order

Step 2: Determine % in each category
Source of
Manufacturing Error Number of defects % of Total Defects
Poor Alignment 223 55.75
Paint Flaw 78 19.50
Bad Weld 34 8.50
Missing Part 25 6.25
Cracked case 21 5.25
Electrical Short 19 4.75
Total 400 100%
(continued)
Step 3: Show results graphically
Pareto Diagram: Cause of Manufacturing Defect
60% 100%
90%
% of defects in each category
50%
80%
cumulative % (line graph)

70%
40%
60%
(bar graph)
30% 50%
40%
20%
30%
20%
10%
10%
0% 0%
Poor Alignment Paint Flaw Bad Weld Missing Part Cracked case Electrical Short
 Example: A company has determined that there are
seven possible defects for one of its product line.
Construct a Pareto diagram for the following defect
frequencies:
Defect
Code Frequency
A 10
B 70
C 15
D 90
E 8
F 4
G 3
 Example: Construct a Pareto diagram to help the
company determine the most significant factors
contributing to processing errors.
Defect Code Frequency

Procedural and diagnostic
1 codes 40
2 Provider information 9
3 Patient information 6
4 Pricing schedule 17
5 Contractual applications 37
6 Prodiver adjustment 7
7 others 4
Graphical
(continued)
 Techniques reviewed in this chapter:
Variables Variables
• Frequency distribution • Line chart

• Bar chart • Frequency distribution
• Pie chart • Histogram and ogive
• Pareto diagram • Stem-and-leaf display
• Scatter plot
Graphs for Time-Series Data
 Suppose that we take a random sample of 100 boxes

of a new variety of cereal.
 If we collect our sample at one point in time and

weigh each box, then the measurements obtained are
known as cross-sectional data.
 We could collect and measure a random sample of 5

boxes every 15 minutes or 10 boxes every 20
minutes. Data measured at successive points in time
are called time-series data.
Graphs for Time-Series Data
1.4
 A line chart (time-series plot) is used to show

the values of a variable over time
 Time is measured on the horizontal axis
 The variable of interest is measured on the

vertical axis
Examples of time series data;
 Monthly products sales and interest rates

 Quarterly corporate earnings
 Daily closing prices of common stock
 Daily exchange rates between various world
currencies
Line Chart Example
Magazine Subscriptions by Year
350
300
Thousands of subscribers
250
200
150
100
50
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Example
 Construct a time-series plot for the following
numbers of customers shopping at a new mall during
a given week. (from your book, pp.40)
Day Number of customers

Monday 525
Tuesday 540
Wednesday 469
Thursday 500
Friday 586
Saturday 640
1.5 Graphs to Describe
Numerical Variables
Numerical Data
Frequency Distributions Stem-and-Leaf

and Display
Cumulative Distributions
Histogram Ogive
Frequency Distributions
 A frequency distribution is a list or a table …

 containing class groupings (categories or
ranges within which the data fall) (left
column).
 and the corresponding frequencies with
which data fall within each class or category
(right column)
 Example: Frequency distribution for employee
completion times
Completion times (in seconds) Frequency
220 less than 230 5
230 less than 240 8

240 less than 250 13
classes Number of
250 less than 260 22 observations
or
intervals
290 less than 300 7

Why Use Frequency Distributions?
 A frequency distribution is a way to summarize

data
 The distribution condenses the raw data into a
more useful form...
 and allows for a quick visual interpretation of
the data
The classes or intervals of a frequency
distribution for numerical data are not easily
identifiable…
 How many intervals should be used?

 How wide should each interval be?
Class Intervals
and Class Boundaries
STEP 1:
 Determine the number of the intervals (classes)
 The number of intervals (classes) used in a

frequency distribution is decided in a somewhat
arbitrary manner.
 Larger sets require more intervals

Smaller sets require fewer intervals.
 Use at least 5 but no more than 15-20 intervals.

How Many Class Intervals?
 Many (Narrow class intervals) 3.5
may yield a very jagged distribution

3

2.5
with gaps from empty classes
Frequency
2
1.5
 Can give a poor indication of how 1
frequency varies across classes

0.5
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
56
60
52
More
Temperature
 Few (Wide class intervals) 12
may compress variation too much

10

8
Frequency
and yield a blocky distribution 6
can obscure important patterns of

4

2
variation. 0
0 30 60 More
Temperature
(X axis labels are upper class endpoints)
Class Intervals
STEP 2:
 Determine the interval width.
 Each class grouping has the same width.
largest number  smallest number

w  interval width 
number of desired intervals
 Round up the interval width to get desirable

interval endpoints
Class Intervals
STEP 3:
 Intervals never overlap
 Each observation must belong to one and only
one interval.
Example:
age 20 to age 30 age 20 but less than age 30 20-29
age 30 to age 40 age 30 but less than age 40 30-39
wrong
Questions for Grouping Data
into Intervals
 1. How wide should each interval be?

(How many classes should be used?)
 2. How should the endpoints of the
intervals be determined?
 Often answered by trial and error, subject
to user judgment
 The goal is to create a distribution that is
neither too "jagged" nor too "blocky”
 Goal is to appropriately show the pattern of
variation in the data
Frequency Distribution Example
Example:
A manufacturer of insulation randomly
selects 20 winter days and records the
daily high temperature
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30,
32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27
(continued)
 Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43,
44, 46, 53, 58
 Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
 Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and
15)
 Compute interval width: 10 (46/5 then round up)
 Determine interval boundaries: 10 but less than 20, 20
but less than 30, . . . , 60 but less than 70
 Count observations & assign to classes
(continued)
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Relative Percentage
Interval Frequency Frequency (%)
10 but less than 20 3 .15 15
20 but less than 30 6 .30 30
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20

50 but less than 60 2 .10 10
Total 20
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
1.00 100 Ch. 1-59
The Cumulative
Frequency Distribution
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage
10 but less than 20 3 15 3 15

20 but less than 30 6 30 9 45
30 but less than 40 5 25 14 70
40 but less than 50 4 20 18 90
50 but less than 60 2 10 20 100
Total 20 100
 Example (from your book, pp. 47):
17 62 15 65
28 51 24 65 Please construct a
frequency distribution
39 41 35 15 by considering the
39 32 36 37 following data
40 21 44 37
59 13 44 56
12 54 64 59
Class Frequency Consider the following data:

0 < 10 8 a) Construct a relative
frequency distribution
10 < 20 10
b) Construct a cumulative
20 < 30 13 frequency distribution
30 < 40 12 c) Construct a cumulative
relative frequency
40 < 50 6 distribution
Histogram
 A graph of the data in a frequency

distribution is called a histogram
 The interval endpoints are shown on the
horizontal axis
 the vertical axis is either frequency,
relative frequency, or percentage
 Bars of the appropriate heights are used to
represent the number of observations within
each class
Histogram Example
Interval Frequency
His togram : Daily High Te m pe rature
10 but less than 20 3
20 but less than 30 6 7 6
6 5
50 but less than 60 2 5 4
Frequency
4 3
3 2
2
1 0 0
(No gaps between 0
bars)
0 0 10 10 2020 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60
70 Temperature in Degrees
Ogive
 Cumulative line graph
 Line that connects points that are cumulative

percent of observations below the upper limit
of each interval in a cumulative frequency
distribution
The Ogive
Graphing Cumulative Frequencies
Upper
interval Cumulative
Interval endpoint Percentage
Less than 10 10 0
10 but less than 20 20 15
20 but less than 30 30 45 Ogive: Daily High Temperature
100
Cumulative Percentage 80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Interval endpoints
Relative Cumulative
Interval frequency frequency relative
frequency (%)
10 but less than 20 5 0.178 17.8
20 but less than 30 3 0.107 28.5
30 but less than 40 7 0.25 53.5
40 but less than 50 4 0.142 67.7
50 but less than 60 5 0.178 85.5
60 but less than 70 4 0.142 100
Please draw a histogram and an ogive by

considering the following data
 Example: Frequency distribution for employee
completion times (from your book, pp. 43-45)
Completion times (in seconds) Frequency
220 less than 230 5

Please draw a
histogram and an ogive
230 less than 240 8
by considering the
following data
290 less than 300 7

Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
(dal-yaprak diyagramı)
 A simple way to see distribution details in a data

set (an alternative to the histogram)
METHOD:
Separate the sorted data series
into leading digits (the stem) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)
Example
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
 Here, use the 10’s digit for the stem unit:

Stem Leaf
 21 is shown as 2 1
 38 is shown as 3 8
Example
(continued)
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
 Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Stem Leaves
2 1 4 4 6 7 7
3 0 2 8
4 1
Using other stem units
 Using the 100’s digit as the stem:
 Round off the 10’s digit to form the leaves
Stem Leaf
 613 would become 6 1
 776 would become 7 8
 ...
 1224 becomes 12 2
Using other stem units
(continued)
 Using the 100’s digit as the stem:
 The completed stem-and-leaf display:
Data:
Stem Leaves
613, 632, 658, 717, 6 136
722, 750, 776, 827, 7 2258
841, 859, 863, 891, 8 346699
894, 906, 928, 933, 9 13368
955, 982, 1034,
1047,1056, 1140, 10 356
1169, 1224 11 47
12 2
88 51 63 85 79
65 79 70 73 77
An accounting professor obtained two random samples

of data. The first data set is for a small random
sample of 10 final exam grades for an introductory
accounting class.
Please construct a stem and leaf display for grades.
3.5 2.8 4.5 6.2 4.8 2.3 2.6 3.9 4.4 5.5
5.2 6.7 3.0 2.4 5.0 3.6 2.9 1.0 2.8 3.6
Please construct a stem and leaf

display for the hours that 20
students spent studying for a
marketing test.
1.6
Relationships Between Variables
 Graphs illustrated so far have involved only a

single variable
 When two variables exist other techniques
are used:
(Qualitative) (Quantitative)
Variables Variables
Cross tables Scatter plots
Scatter Diagrams
(dağılma diyagramı)
 Scatter Diagrams are used for

paired observations taken from
two numerical variables
 The Scatter Diagram:

 one variable is measured on the
vertical axis and

 the other variable is measured on the
horizontal axis
 The scatter diagram provides a picture of
the data, include the following:
 The range of each variable

 The pattern of values over the range
 A suggestion as to a possible relationship
between the two variables
 An indication of outliers (extreme points)
Scatter Diagram Example
Volume Cost per Cost per Day vs. Production Volume

per day day
23 125 250
26 140
200
29 146
Cost per Day
33 160 150
38 167 100
42 170
50
50 188
55 195 0
60 200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Volume per Day
Cross Tables
(çapraz tablolar)
 Cross Tables (or contingency tables) list the

number of observations for every
combination of values for two categorical or
ordinal variables
 If there are r categories for the first

variable (rows) and c categories for the
second variable (columns), the table is called
an r x c cross table
Cross Table Example
 4 x 3 Cross Table for Investment Choices by
Investor (values in $1000’s)
Investment Investor A Investor B Investor C Total
Category
Stocks 46.5 55 27.5 129
Bonds 32.0 44 19.0 95
CD 15.5 20 13.5 49
Savings 16.0 28 7.0 51
Total 110.0 147 67.0 324
1.7
Data Presentation Errors
Goals for effective data presentation:

 Present data to display essential information
 Communicate complex ideas clearly and
accurately
 Avoid distortion that might convey the wrong
message
Data Presentation Errors
(continued)
 Unequal histogram interval widths

 Compressing or distorting the vertical
axis
 Providing no zero point on the vertical
axis
 Failing to provide a relative basis in
comparing data between groups
Example: Grocery Receipts (from your
book, pp. 56)
Dollar amount Number of Proportions

receipts
$ 0 < $ 10 84 84 / 692
$ 10 < $ 20 113 113 / 692
$ 20 < $ 30 112 112 / 692
$ 30 < $ 40 85 85 / 692
$ 40 < $ 50 77 77 / 692
$ 50 < $ 60 58 58 / 692
$ 60 < $ 80 75 75 / 692
$ 80 < $ 100 48 48 / 692
$ 100 < $ 200 40 40 / 692
Age Percent Consider the following data:
a) Construct a relative
18-24 11.30
cumulative frequency
25-34 19.11 distribution
35-44 23.64 b) What percent of the

Internet visitors were
45-54 23.48 under 45 years of age?
55 + 22.48 c) What percent of the
Internet visitors were at
least 35 years of age?
A sample of 20 financial analyst was asked to provide

forecasts of earnings per share of a corporation for next
year. The results are summarized in the following table:
Forecast Number of
analyst a) Draw the histogram.
($ per share)
9.95 < 10.45 2 b) Find the relative frequencies.
10.45 < 10.95 8 c) Find the cumulative
frequencies.
10.95 < 11.45 6
d) Find the relative cumulative
11.45 < 11.95 3 frequencies.
11.95 < 12.45 1
A random sample of customers was asked to select their

favorite soft drink from a list of five brands. The results
showed that 30 preferred Brand A, 50 preferred Brand B,
46 preferred Brand C, 100 preferred Brand D and 14
preferred Brand E.
a) Construct a pie chart.

b) Construct a bar chart.

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Statistics for

Business and Economics

Describing Data: Graphical

 What are the projected sales of new product

Numbers are used to predict or forecast sales of

 Numbers and data are used to assist

 Once the data are collected, what do we

 Statistics is a tool to help us process, summarize,

Everyday decisions are based on incomplete

Define the problem / determine what data are needed /

 To know how to properly present and describe

 A population is the collection of all items of interest

 A sample is an observed subset of the population

 A sample is less time consuming than a census.

 A sample is less costly to administer than a census.

 A sample is less cumbersome and more practical to

 Names of all registered voters in the United States

 Incomes of all families living in Daytona Beach

 Annual returns of all stocks traded on the New York

 Grade point averages of all the students in your

Simple random sampling is a procedure in which

 each member of the population is chosen strictly by

The resulting sample is called a random sample

 A statistic is a specific characteristic of a sample

Values calculated using Values computed from

 Use sample information to make decisions about

 Draw the conclusion about the population.

Two branches of statistics:

mean weight using the sample

population mean weight is 140

Inference is the process of drawing conclusions or

Satisfaction rating with university food

 Data in raw form are usually not easy to

 The type of graph to use depends on the

• Frequency distribution • Line chart

Tabulating Data Graphing Data

 Used to organize data..

Example: Hospital Patients by Unit

Hospital Unit Number of Patients

 If our intent is to draw attention to the

 If we want to draw attention to the portion of

patients per year

size of pie slice shows

(Percentages are rounded to

“A student might think that 80% of the work on a

The most indicate the causes with the

Step 1: Sort by defect cause, in descending order

cumulative % (line graph)

Defect Code Frequency

• Frequency distribution • Line chart

 Suppose that we take a random sample of 100 boxes

 If we collect our sample at one point in time and

 We could collect and measure a random sample of 5

 A line chart (time-series plot) is used to show

 Time is measured on the horizontal axis

 The variable of interest is measured on the

 Monthly products sales and interest rates

Magazine Subscriptions by Year

Day Number of customers

Frequency Distributions Stem-and-Leaf

 A frequency distribution is a list or a table …

Completion times (in seconds) Frequency

220 less than 230 5