BUILDING

SCIENCES - 1

LECTURE -5

SAMPURNA MAHARJAN
 Overview
• Solar Chart
• Calculation of vertical and horizontal shading
devices
• Solar Control Techniques
• Selective Transmittance

Chapter 2
 Overview
Chapter-2 Thermal Aspects
• Conduction, convection and radiation
• Thermal environment
• Thermal comfort
• Subjective variables
• Bioclimatic chart
• Thermal terminologies
Solar chart

Introduction

• The sun-path diagram is a plot of the angular position of the

sun on a given day and time of the year.

It enables to locate the position of the sun at any time of day,

during any month and for any location.

It is a plot of the sun's altitude versus azimuth at different times

throughout a given day. This is the sun's path for that day. This
can be done for any day of the year.
Solar chart

Use of solar chart:

To know sunrise and sun-set time of a day.

To calculate day and night time lag.
To calculate solar altitude angle (γ).
To calculate solar azimuth angle (α).
To calculate vertical shadow angle (ε).
To calculate horizontal shadow angle (δ).
 Solar chart

Solar altitude angle (γ).

Concentric circles in the stereographic sun-chart depicts solar altitude
angle. Centre is 90° and peripheral is 0°.

This angle depends upon:

Time of the day
Day of the year
Latitude of the place

Check this
http://wiki.naturalfrequency.com/wiki/Sun-Path/Compo
nents

http://www.coastalcontractor.net/article/62.html
 Solar chart
Solar azimuth angle (α)
Angle at the point of observation measured on a horizontal plane
between north direction and a projection of sun’s position at the
horizon.

Azimuth angles at different orientation

North = 0°, east = 90°, south = 180° and west = 270°.

Check this
http://www.itacanet.org/the-sun-as-a-source-of-energy α
/part-1-solar-astronomy/

http://www.coastalcontractor.net/article/62.html
 Solar chart
Solar shadow angles
Essential for designing shading devices.
Two types
Vertical shadow angle (ε)
Horizontal shadow angle (δ)

http://wiki.naturalfrequency.com/wiki
/Shadow_Angles
 Solar chart E = 90°
Solar shadow angles

S = 180°
N = 0°

N = 0°

Horizontal shadow angle: W = 270°

• Characterizes vertical shading device.

• It is the difference between solar azimuth and wall azimuth

angle.

• Numerically, same as horizontal component for angle of

incidence. http://wiki.naturalfrequency.com/wiki
/Shadow_Angles
 Solar chart
Solar shadow angles
Vertical shadow angle (ε)
• Characterizes horizontal
shading device.

• A long horizontal shading

device projected form wall

It is measured on a vertical
plane of wall/opening.

Expressed as
tan ε = tan γ X sec δ.
 Solar chart
Solar shadow angles

Important to know
Angle of incidence (β)
its horizontal and vertical component

δ γ

Expressed as
cosβ = cos γ X cos δ.
calculation
Q # Find the following values on 22nd June for 1 pm at
Kathmandu for wall facing SW.

solar altitude angle (γ)

wall azimuth angle (ω)
solar azimuth angle (α)
horizontal shadow angle (δ)
angle of incidence (ß)
Vertical shadow angle (ε)
solar altitude angle (γ)

Date of year and

time of day :
22nd June ; 1 pm:

Form chart of 28°N,

Altitude
angle is 73°
solar azimuth angle (α)

Date of year and

time of day :
22nd June ; 1 pm:

Form chart of 28°N,

Solar
Azimuth
angle is
260°
 Wall azimuth angle (ω)

E = 90° Date of year and

time of day :
22nd June ; 1 pm:

Wall is facing S-W

S = 180°
N = 0°
Wall azimuth is
found with respect
to north. Hence,
SW=225°
it is 225°.
W = 270°
 horizontal shadow angle (δ) Date of year and time of
day :
22nd June ; 1 pm:

It is difference between
wall azimuth and solar
azimuth whichever is
greater.

Hence,
N = 0°
δ =α–ω
= 260° - 225°
= 35°
Angle of incidence ‘ß’
cosß = cosγ X cosδ
Horizontal shadow angle ‘δ’
Altitude angle ‘γ’.

Vertical shadow angle ‘ε’

Tan ε = tan γ X sec δ
Horizontal shadow angle ‘δ’
Altitude angle ‘γ’.
 Solar control techniques

Major portion of the heat coming through sun can be

controlled by following ways.

Solar radiation can be controlled by:

1. Natural technique
2. Architectural technique
3. Structural technique
 Solar control techniques
Solar radiation can be controlled by:

1. Natural technique
Roof garden, living walls, roof ponds.
covers the surface

It reduces solar heat gain drastically

which reduces thermal stress on roof

Greenery can be planted on the ground,

adjoining the walls, on roofs, in flat boxes on
terraces or hung onto the facades.
Left: Façade greenery
(Le-Corbusier: Villa Fallet).

Right: Roof garden

(Le- Corbusier: Carpenter
Center)
 Solar control techniques
Solar radiation can be controlled
by: Texture:
2. Architectural technique
Porous texture absorbs solar
color, texture, projections and
overhangs, shading devices, building
radiation where as smooth surface
orientation reflects most of the direct and
indirect radiation falling on it.

Textured surface on wall often acts

as shading device so that wall will
receive shade there by reducing
heat transfer through it.
 Solar control techniques
Solar radiation can be controlled
by: Colour:
2. Architectural technique
Dark color absorbs where as bright
color, texture, projections and
overhangs, shading devices, building
color reflects radiation falling on its
orientation surface.
 Solar control
Solar radiation can be controlled
techniques
by: Projections and overhangs:
2. Architectural technique
color, texture, projections and Slab projections, building block
overhangs, shading devices, building
orientation projection, portico, balcony
provide shade for wall or opening
below it, reducing the chance of
falling direct radiation on its
surface.
 Solar control
Solar radiation can be controlled
techniques
by: Shading devices:
2. Architectural technique
color, texture, projections and - Horizontal shading device
overhangs, shading devices, building
orientation - Vertical shading device
- Egg crate shading devices
 Solar control
Solar radiation can be controlled
techniques
by: Shading devices:
2. Architectural technique
color, texture, projections and - Horizontal shading device
overhangs, shading devices, building
orientation - Vertical shading device
- Egg crate shading devices
This is very efficient against high mid-day sun
especially on north and south facades. It can
take the form of a roof overhang a slab
projection and verandahs or with fixed or
adjustable louvers.

Its performance will be measured by a vertical

shadow angle (ε). These will be most effective
when sun is at a high angle. To exclude a low
angle sun, this type of device would have to
cover the window completely, permitting a view
downwards only.
 Solar control
Solar radiation can be controlled
techniques
by: Shading devices:
2. Architectural technique
color, texture, projections and - Horizontal shading device
overhangs, shading devices, building
orientation - Vertical shading device
- Egg crate shading devices

The horizontal shadow angle

measures their performance.

This type of device is most effective

when the sun is one side of the
elevation.
 Solar control
Solar radiation can be controlled
techniques
by: Shading devices:
2. Architectural technique
color, texture, projections and - Horizontal shading device
overhangs, shading devices, building
orientation - Vertical shading device
- Egg crate shading devices
Combination of vertical and
horizontal elements may be used
where only horizontal or vertical
protection alone would not provide
shade. Protection may be required
on eat to southeast and on west to
south west oriented surfaces. It
could be made of pre-cast concrete
or brick elements, timber or
another similar material.
 Solar control techniques
More pics
 Solar control techniques
More pics
 Solar control techniques
More pics
 Solar control techniques

3. Structural technique
structural elements like massive wall, cavity wall, multilayer
wall, false ceiling, double roof and multi glazed window

Figure: double roof to minimize effect of solar heat in summer and to use same in winter.
 Solar control techniques
Selective transmittance of glass
With opaque surfaces, solar radiation is absorbed and reflected. Bu t for
glass portion of radiation is transmitted expressed by the coefficient
transmittance‘t’. Thus, a + r + t = 1.
An ordinary window glass transmits a large proportion of all radiation
between 300 and 3000nm (visible light 380 – 700nm ranging from violet to
red). Its transmittance is selective. This selective transmittance can be
modified by varying the composition of the glass to reduce substantially the
infra-red transmission. Such product is called as heat absorbing glass.
There is some problem in heat absorbing glass. it is that the absorbed
heat will be reradiated and convected partly to the outside and partly to
inside. Thus the net improvement will not enhance in reduction in
transmittance.
The solution here is to mount the heat absorbing glass at some distance
(0.5 – 1m) in front of and ordinary glazed window. Heat transmitted by
absorbing glass will be of long wave and ordinary glass as it is opaque for
long wave radiation.
Heat reflecting glass: coated with nickel or gold and it absorbs very less
heat.
Light-sensitive glass: contains submicroscopic halide crystals. Turns
dark when exposed to strong light. Transmittance varies between 1 – 74%.
Solar control techniques
 Solar control techniques
Selective transmittance

Selective transmittance refers to the ability of a glazing

material to respond differently to different wavelengths
of solarenergy.
In other words, to admit visible light while
50% rejecting unwanted invisible infrared heat. Newer
products on the market have achieved this
40% 10% characteristic, permitting much clearer glass than
previously available for solar control glazings. A glazing
with a relatively high
visible transmittance and a low solar heat gain
2% coefficient indicates that a glazing is selective.
8% Spectrally selective glazings use special absorbing tints
or coatings, and are typically either neutral in color or
have a blue or blue/green appearance.
Questions?
 CHAPTER 2
Thermal aspect

Concept of Thermal Aspcet

Heat Exchange in a Building
Thermal Control and Thermal Comfort Techniques
Shelters in different Climates
Shelters for different conditions
 COMFORT
Physical comfort
Mental comfort
Visual comfort
 Heat exchange or transfer
Conduction, convection, radiation
Conduction:

Due to bodies in direct contact, spread of molecular movement

constitutes the flow of heat.

The rate at which such molecular movement spreads varies with

different materials and is termed as conductivity or K-value.
 Heat exchange or transfer
Convection:

Heat is transferred by the bodily movement of a carrying medium,

usually gas or a liquid.

This movement may be self generating i.e. due to thermal forces

alone (temperature differences, thus different densities, causing
convection currents as in wind generation) or may be propelled by
applied force.

Movement!! How??
 Heat exchange or transfer
Conduction, convection, radiation
Radiation:

Do not need media to transfer heat.

The rate of heat flow depends on

the temperatures of the emitting and receiving surfaces

physical properties like emitance and absorbance.
 Thermal environment

Two different (unequally heated) bodies exchange heat

between themselves.

Bodies can be the sun and the earth, between human body
and surrounding air, from industries and machinery to
atmosphere etc.

there must be two bodies, heat source and the

heat sink
 Source (donor) and sink (acceptor) example
Source Sink
Day Sun Earth
Night Earth surface Clear sky

In the thermal environment, donor and

acceptor tends to be at equilibrium.

Donor Acceptor

Thermal equilibrium
Heat exchange phenomena creates an environment called
thermal environment.

What is thermal environment?

 Thermal Comfort

http://www.cibse.org/pdfs/KS6%20pages%201
%20and%204.pdf

?
(ASHRAE, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineer)
 Some standards for thermal comfort:

British comfort zone lies between 14.5°C -21.1°C.

US comfort zone lies between 20.5°C – 26.6°C,

relative to humidity between 30 and 70%.

German suggested it 16.5°C with 50% relative humidity.

In Tropics,
air temperature is in between 23°C – 29.5°C with
relative humidity between 30 to 70%.

Upadhayaya, A.K,(2003), Energy Efficient Design (Course manual)

 standards for thermal comfort for students:

What is the standard for your comfort?

No design studio, assignments

Facebook, friends …
No fixed measurements exists
http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/dow
nloads/40house/background_doc_c.pdf

Bioclimatic chart explains the comfort condition

referring to the combination climatic elements (air
temperature, relative humidity, necessacity of solar
radiation and wind).
 http://www.scribd.com/doc/4024258/185/A-2

Bioclimatic chart !!
-OLGYAY%E2%80%99S-BIOCLIMATIC-CHART
e
m or
rch
S ea

http://nceub.commoncense.info/uploads/Sabe
ri.pdf
 What determines thermal comfort?

Combined effect of climatic elements.

Following individual factors
Clothing
Acclimatization
Age
Gender
Body Shape
State of health
Skin colour etc.
 What determines thermal comfort?
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/studentdownloads/dea3500pdfs/thermcomfort.pdf
useful link

Clothing: A person wearing normal business suite will require a

temperature about 9°C lower than a naked body.

Acclimatization: Exposed to new set of climatic conditions,

human body will require some time to adjust in the change
climate. It depends upon the individual preferences.

Age and sex: Metabolism of older people is slower and usually

prefers higher temperatures. Women also have slightly slower
metabolic rates than men. They will require 1°C higher than that of
men.

Body shape: Relate with surface to volume ratio. Thin person

dissipate more heat than short person of same weight and will prefer a
higher temperature.
Emissivity, Absorbtivity and Reflectivity

Emissivity:

The ability to emit heat by an object.

The warmer surface emits heat energy in the form of radiant

heat energy always towards the cooler surface.

The quantity of emittant heat energy depends upon the

temperature difference between the surfaces
Absorptivity:

The absorptivity is the ability to absorb the radiant heat by

structure.

Perfect black body is absorber whose absorptivity is one

and reflectivity is zero.

Absorptivity values for solar radiation by different surfaces

depends upon
porosity, darkness, roughness of the surface of the materials.
 Emissivity, Absorptivity and Reflectivity
Reflectivity:

Light color, smoothens, shininess of the surface of structure

affects the amount of reflection.

Reflectivity is the ability to reflect heat by the surface.

For perfect white body, absorbance is zero and reflectivity is one.

 Thermal Terminologies
1. Thermal Conductivity (K):

It is the property of material which indicates movement of

molecules.
in ᵒC
It is measured as t A
out
“the rate of heat flow through unit surface area of unit thickness of
the material, when there is a unit temperature difference between
the two sides”. 2
(W/m )*m/ᵒC
Value varies between
0.03 W/m ᵒC (insulating material) - 400 W/m ᵒC (metals).
(Refer appendix 5.1, O. H. Koenigsberger, Manual of Tropical Housing and Building)
 Thermal Terminologies
2. Thermal Resistivity (1/K):

Reciprocal of thermal conductivity.

It is the property of a material to resist heat flow through it.

It is measured as m ᵒC/W

insulating material has higher resistivity value.

 Thermal Terminologies
3. Thermal Conductance :
Property of a body.
“It is the rate of flow of heat through a unit surface area of the
body when the temperature difference between the two surfaces is 1
deg C”.

Its unit expressed as: W/ m2ᵒC.

(W/m2)*1/ᵒC in ᵒC
A
out
Conductivity
“the rate of heat flow through unit surface area of unit thickness of the material,
when there is a unit temperature difference between the two sides”.
 Thermal Terminologies
4. Thermal Resistance (R):

Reciprocal of thermal conductance

Its unit expressed as: m2ᵒC/W .

Resistance of a body =
thickness x resistivity of a material
(b x 1/K = b/K)
 Thermal Terminologies out in
5. Surface Conductance (f):

In addition to the resistance of a body to the flow of heat, a

resistance will be offered by its surfaces, where

a thin layer of air separates the body from the surrounding air.

Resistance offered by this thin layer of air is called

surface resistance.
It is denoted by 1/ f.
“f” is the surface
conductance.
Overall air-to-air resistance (R) is sum of the body’s
resistance and the surface resistances.
Ra = 1/fi + Rb + 1/fo
Overall resistance = internal surface resistance + body resistance + external resistance
 Thermal Terminologies
6. Thermal Transmittance (U-value):

The reciprocal of air-to-air resistance is air-to-air transmittance or

U-value. U = 1/ Ra .

“ the rate at which heat is transmitted from the air on one side of a
wall or roof to the air at the other side, per unit surface area, per unit
difference in air temperature” .

in ᵒC
A
out
Its unit is same as conductance - W/
m2ᵒC
 Thermal Terminologies
7. Cavity resistance (Rc):

If an air space is introduced in a composite wall, it will offer

another barrier to the passage of heat.

Depth of cavity is should not be less than 50mm, resistance offered is

0.176 m2ᵒC/ W.

in ᵒC
A
out
Sol-air temperature and Solar gain factor
Sol-air temperature and solar gain factor
Sol-air temperature (Tsol) is the equivalent effective outdoor
temperature. It combines effect of convection and radiation.
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Ref%20and%20Air%20
Cond/pdf/R&AC%20Lecture%2034.pdf

Ts = To + I.a/ fo
Ts = sol-air temperature (◦C)
To = outside air temperature (◦C)
I = intensity of solar radiation W/m2
a = absorbance of the surface
fo = surface conductance (outside) W/ m2◦C.
What happens if there is no sunlight?
T s = To
http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/sol-air.htm
Sol-air temperature (Tsol) =
Outdoor air temperature + Radiation

Ts = To + I.a/ fo

Solar Gain Factor:

Heat flow rate through the construction due to solar radiation

expressed as a fraction of incident solar radiation.
http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/~bsapplec/sol-air.htm
Calculate U-value of the following construction.

12 mm cement plaster from inside and

out in outside, 350 mm thick brick work.

Thermal conductivity of
Plaster 0.35 W/mᵒC
Brick 0.8 W/mᵒC

Internal and external surface resistance

are 0.123 m2 ᵒC/W and 0.076 m2 ᵒC/W
respectively

http://www.changeplan.co.uk/uvalue.htm

Calculate the same for wall section having same finishes from both
side and wall is 110 mm thick.
 Thank you

Question / Discussion