Building Materials & Construction I

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1.Introduction
Definition

• Material: a substance or thing from which

some thing else can be made. Examples:
Cement,brick,aluminium,soil,water…

•InEngineering, materials are employed to design

and build structures or elements.

•MaterialEngineering refers to the understanding

and review of properties and uses of materials
commonly used in engineering
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 Material Types
Amorphous Materials:
Materials in which atoms are arranged randomly.
or those that do not have crystalline structure.
Are strong but brittle
Examples: soot(impure carbon),glass
Crystalline materials can be converted in to an amorphous
material by quenching.
i.e. heating the material to its melting temperature followed by
rapid cooling so that the material has no time to return to its
crystalline arrangement

Brittle Materials: Brittleness denotes relatively little or no

elongation or increase in length at fracture.
Examples: cast iron
concrete
Glass…

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Building Materials: Materials that are used in the building
industry such as cement, steel ,brick ,plastics, wood, glass etc.

HCB(Hollow Concrete Blocks)

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Building materials ctd

Bricks Timber products

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Cementitious materials: Materials in which the principal
binder is Portland cement or another type of hydraulic
cements .

cement

Ceramic Materials:
…The word ceramic comes from Greek, meaning “burned earth”.
…ceramic materials are nonmetallic materials based on clay(silicate
mineral)
…They are usually crystalline and brittle ,do not conduct electricity
very well ,and can withstand high temperatures.

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Floor Ceramic materials

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Floor and wall Ceramic materials

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 Construction Materials: any material used in construction
industry.
Examples: cement ,soil,aggregates,asphalt,etc

 Ductile Materials: aggregates

 Ductility is the property that makes the material to be drawn out or stretched to a
considerable extent before rupture.
 It is usually measured as the percentage of elongation (increase in
length) or as the percentage of the reduction in the cross-sectional
area ,when the material is subjected to tension.
 Examples :steel ,aluminum etc

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Steel-ductile material

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Elastic Materials:
 Elasticity is the ability of a material to deform under load without a
permanent set or deformation up on release of the load.
 It can also be defined as that property of material by virtue of which
deformations from the a load or stress disappear after removal of the
load.
 A perfectly elastic material recover completely its original shape and
dimensions when loads are removed.
 None of the materials remain perfectly elastic throughout the range of
stress leading up to failure.
 But all exhibit elastic properties up to some stress level.
 An elastic material behaves inelastically when the stresses exceeds
the elastic limit, beyond which changes in volume ,shape are
permanent.

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Crystallinematerials: Materials in which atoms are
arranged in a discernible repeated pattern in three
dimensions.
 Thermoplastic Materials: Materials that turn plastic
(soft)when subjected to heat. e.g. petroleum pitch

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2.Classification & Properties of Materials

2.1 Classification of Materials

 Materials that are used for construction purpose can be
broadly classified based on their:

Metallic Property
Physical nature
Mode of production

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Classification Based on Metallic Property

1.Metallic : in general metals can be classified in to :Ferrous and Non-

ferrous.
a. Ferrous: is the metal in which the principal element is iron.
Examples:steel,wrought iron & cast iron
b. Non-ferrous : is the metal in which the principal element is not iron
Examples: copper,aluminium,lead,zinc,etc

2.Non metallic:
Examples;concrete,timber,stone,lime etc.

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Classification Based on Physical Nature of Materials

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Classification Based on Mode of Production

a) Naturally Occurring Materials

.stone
.timber
b) Industrially produced materials
.Cement
.glass
C) Materials produced at construction site
.Concrete
.mortar

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2.2 Properties of Materials

Properties which are related to materials:

1. Physical properties
 Density
 Specific gravity
 Porosity
 Moisture content
 Permeability

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2, Chemical properties
 Corrosion Resistance
 Combustibility
 Toxicity
 Decay Resistance

3.Mechanical Properties
The resistance of material to:
 The action of external static forces (compressive, tensile, bending,
shear, torsional strength)

 The action of dynamic external forces(impact and vibratory loads)

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Behavior of materials under load

Application of external force on solid body in equilibrium

results in:

….Internal resisting forces which are developed in the body

so as to balance the externally applied force.

….The body is deformed to varying degree

….The intensity of internal force is stress and the

deformation per unit is strain.

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Depending on the arrangement & direction of the external forces,
the stress produced in the body may be :
 Tensile
 Compressive
 Shear
 Bending
 Torsional
 Various combinations of the above.

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2.3 Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties

..Mechanical properties are conducted to examine the performance of

construction materials under the action of external forces.
..Mechanical tests are classified :
A. With reference to the arrangement & direction of the
external forces;
 Tension Test
 Specimen under tension test is subjected to an axial tensile force
 Tensile stress is developed on cross-sectional area perpendicular
to the line of action of the force.
 The specimen increase in length.

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UTM

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 Compression Test
 Specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force
 Compressive stress is produced.
 The specimen decrease in length.

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Shear test
In this test, shearing stress is determined on the x-
sectional area parallel to the line of action of the
external forces.
Bending Test.
Specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to
bending moments
The resulting stresses are compressive on one side
of the neutral axis & tensile on the other side.
Shear stress exist throughout the beam.

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TENSION & COMPRESSION TEST
Strength of a material can only be
determined by experiment
One test used by engineers is the tension or
compression test
This test is used primarily to determine the
relationship between the average normal
stress and average normal strain in common
engineering materials.

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Performing the tension
Specimen of material is made into
“standard” shape and size
Before testing, 2 small punch marks
identified along specimen’s length
Measurements are taken of both specimen’s
initial x-sectional area A0and gauge-length
distance L0; between the two marks
Seat the specimen into a testing machine
shown below

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The machine will stretch specimen at slow constant
rate until breaking point
At frequent intervals during test, data is recorded of
the applied load P.
Elongation δ= L− L0is measured using either a
caliper or an extensometer
δ is used to calculate the normal strain in the
specimen
Sometimes, strain can also be read directly using an
electrical-resistance strain gauge

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STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
A stress-strain diagram is obtained by
plotting the various values of the stress
and corresponding strain in the specimen.
Using recorded data, we can determine
nominal or engineering stress by:
σ=P /A0
Assumption: Stress is constant over the x-
section and throughout region between
gauge points

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Likewise, nominal or engineering strain is found
directly from strain gauge reading, or by:
εo =δ/ L0
By plotting σ(ordinate) against ε(abscissa), we get a
conventional stress-strain diagram.
The following figure shows the characteristic stress-
strain diagram for steel, a commonly used material
for structural members and mechanical elements

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 Proportional Limit: is the greatest stress which a
material is capable of withstanding without deviation
from the law of proportionality of stress to strain.

Elastic Limit: is the greatest stress which a material is

capable of withstanding without a permanent
deformation remaining up on the release of stress.

Yield Point :is the stress at which there occurs a

considerable increase in strain without an increase in
stress. Only ductile materials have both lower & upper
yield points.

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Elastic behavior.
A straight line
Stress is proportional to strain, i.e.,
linearly elastic
Upper stress limit, or ;σpl proportional limit
If load is removed upon reaching elastic
limit, specimen will return to its original
shape

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Yielding.
Material deforms permanently; yielding;
plastic deformation
Yield stress, σY
Once yield point reached, specimen
continues to elongate (strain) without any
increase in load

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Strain hardening
Ultimate stress,σu
While specimen is elongating, its x-
sectional area will decrease
Decrease in area is fairly uniform over
entire gauge length.

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Necking.
At ultimate stress, x-sectional area begins to
decrease in a localized region
As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to
form in this region as specimen elongates
further
Specimen finally breaks at fracture stress,σf

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 True stress-strain diagram
◦ Instead of using original cross-sectional area and length,
we can use the actual cross-sectional area and length at
the instant the load is measured
◦ Values of stress and strain thus calculated are called true
stress and true strain, and a plot of their values is the true
stress-strain diagram.
◦ In strain-hardening range, conventional σ-ε diagram
shows specimen supporting decreasing load
◦ •While true σ-ε diagram shows material to be sustaining
increasing stress

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Ductile materials
Defined as any material that can be subjected
to large strains before it ruptures, e.g., mild
steel
Such materials are used because it is capable
of absorbing shock or energy, and if before
becoming overloaded, will exhibit large
deformation before failing
Ductility of material is to report its percent
elongation or percent reduction in area at
time of fracture
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STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE
& BRITTLE MATERIALS
Ductile materials
◦ Percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture
strain expressed as a percent
◦ Percent elongation= (Lf− L0) (100%)
L0
◦ Percent reduction in area is defined within
necking region as
◦ Percent reduction in area=(A0− Af) (100%)
A0

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Most metals do not exhibit constant
yielding behavior beyond the elastic
range, e.g. aluminum
It does not have well-defined yield point,
thus it is standard practice to define its
yield strength using a graphical procedure
called the offset method

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Offset method to determine yield strength
◦ Normally, a 0.2 % strain is chosen.
◦ From this point on the ε axis, a line parallel to initial
straight-line portion of stress-strain diagram is drawn.
◦ The point where this line intersects the curve defines
the yield strength.

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Brittle Materials
Material that exhibit little or no yielding
before failure are referred to as brittle
materials, e.g., gray cast iron
Brittle materials do not have a well-defined
tensile fracture stress, since appearance of
initial cracks in a specimen is quite random

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 HOOKE’S LAW
Most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain with the
elastic region.
Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using
springs, known as Hooke’s law
σ= Eε
E represents the constant of proportionality, also
called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus
E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.

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 Modulus of Elasticity(young’s modulus) ctd.

 is the slope of the initial linear part of stress-strain diagram.

 The greater the modulus of elasticity, the smaller the elastic
strain resulting from the application of a given values.

Methods of determining modulus of elasticity, E.

i. For ductile materials, with linear stress – strain portion,

E= ∆ σ ∕ ∆ ε

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 ii. For materials with non-linear stress-strain curves
 The slope of the stress- strain curve varies and the modulus of
elasticity cannot be readily determined.
 The following three methods are employed to define E:

a. Initial-Tangent modulus: The slope of the stress –strain curve at

the origin which has a value of E 1 =tanф1

Stress
(σt )

ф1

Strain(ε )

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b. Secant modulus : the slope of the line joining the origin
and the selected point on the stress-strain curve with the
value of E 2 =tanф2

Stress
(σt )

ф2
Strain(ε )

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c. Tangent modulus: The slope of the tangent to the stress –strain
curve at the selected point with the value of E 3 =tanф3

Stress
ф3
(σt )

Strain(ε )

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Modulus of resilience
When stress reaches proportional limit, strain-
energy-energy density is called modulus of
resilience.
A material’s resilience represents its ability to
absorb energy without any permanent damage

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Modulus of toughness
Modulus of toughness t, indicates the
strain-energy density of material before it
fractures.
Shaded area under stress-strain diagram is
the modulus of toughness

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Stiffness
 is the measure of the ability of material to resist
deformation.
 The higher the modulus of elasticity, the stiffer the material.
 A material has a higher stiffness value when its deformation
in the elastic range is relatively small.
 Comparing steel alloys with E=210Gpa and aluminium
alloys with E=70Gpa,the steel alloys are about three times as
stiff as the aluminium alloys i.e steel alloys will deform
about one-third as much as aluminium alloys for the same
stress.

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POISSON’S RATIO
When body subjected to axial tensile force,
it elongates and contracts laterally
Similarly, it will contract and its sides
expand laterally when subjected to an axial
compressive force

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Strains of the bar are:
ε long=δ/L , εlat=δ’/r
Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within elastic
range, ratio of the two strains is a constant value, since
both are proportional.
Poisson’s ratio, ν= − εlat/εlong
Is the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in
transverse direction to the longitudinal direction within
proportional limit.
Poisson’s ratio is a measure of the stiffness of the
material in the direction at right angle to applied load.

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B. Mechanical Test with reference to the rate & duration of
the load application.
 Static Tests
 Made with gradually increasing load.
e.g. ordinary tests in tension & compression etc.
 Dynamic Tests
 Made with suddenly applied loads.
 Wear Tests
 Made to determine the resistance to abrasion & impact.
 Long time Tests
 These are made with the loads applied to the object for long period of time.
 Fatigue Tests
 These tests are made with fluctuating stresses repeated a large number of
times

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C. Mechanical Tests With Reference to the effect on the specimen.
 Destructive Test
 The specimens are either crushed or ruptured and made useless at
the end of the tests.
 Tests conducted on the following materials are best examples
..Ultimate strength of steel
..Compressive strength of concrete

 Non-destructive Tests
 Are used to test the strength of members of existing structures
without affecting their performance.
 Example: hammer test

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Thank you!!

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