Advanced Behavioural

Analysis (ABA)
Child Psychopathology
Presented By: Shaza Azam, Noor Ul Huda, Easha Shahid, Mariam
Khurshid
 Introduction to ABA
• Understanding and improvement of human behavior
• Behavior analysts aim to define “behaviours of social significance”.
• Also known as target behaviours.
• Reliable relationship b/w intervention and improvements in behavior.
• Effective Intervention-Data Collection
• Generalization and maintenance-Time, different settings and people.
• Behavior analysts train- ensure a consistent protocol.
Introduction to ABA
• ABA focuses on skill acquisition-Mastery
• Observable Behaviours vs. Skill Acquisition
• ABA techniques can be used in a plethora of settings
(schools, parent training, staff training, special education,
self-management, etc.).
• ABA theoretical approach- changes in environment act as
precursors to behavior change.
Common Terms
• Positive Reinforcement- Added Immediately
• Negative Reinforcement- Removed
• Reinforcement
• Reinforcers
• Positive Punishement- Added Immediately
• Negative Punishment- Removed
• Punishers
Common Terms
Common Terms
• Non-Contingent Reinforcement (NCR)
• Extinction
• Preferred Items- Example Pay at work.
• Frequency
Understanding the ABC
Five Steps Model-ABA

Step1: Select behavior to be analyzed

Step 2: Measure the behaviour

Step 3: Select treatment procedures

Step 4: Implement procedures

Step 5: Evaluate effect of treatment

Step 1: Select behavior to be analyzed

• Assess existing ability for target behavior.

• Functionally define the target behavior
• Illustrate priorities, goals and objectives
• Analyze the system
Step 2: Measure the behaviour

• Pick a measurement procedure

• Collect data, baseline
• Continue data collection side by side
Step 3: Select Treatment procedures

• Identify readily available contingencies

• Selection of materials, equipment, and setting
• Mutually negotiate treatment plans as needed
Step 4: Implement procedures

• Monitor effects based on data collection

• Incorporate change and new procedures as needed
Step 5: Evaluate effect of treatment
• Data collect
• Modify or fade treatment
Components of a Good Program
• Training –Support, monitoring.
• Programming –1. After a detailed assessment 2. Family and learner preferences 3.Generalization
• Functional programming – Goals selected increase or enhance his/her quality of life. A mix of behavior analytic therapies.
• Supervision –Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA), Supervisors should have extensive experience- before giving out
an ABA based intervention plan.
• Data collection – Data monitoring must be done regularly, reviewed by the supervisor and used to gauge progress.
• Family training – Family members should be trained be involved in both the planning and review process.
• Team Meetings- These involve the therapists, supervisor and involved family members are necessary to maintain
consistency, identify pertinent issues and discuss progress.
Shaza Azam
Discrete trail teaching
• It is systematic format/procedure to teach new skills to children
specifically large variety of skills.
• It has three primary components
1. Discriminative stimulus (instructions from therapists)
2. Learner’s response
3. Consequence (reinforcement and Punishment)
(Leaf, Cihon, Ferguson & Weinkau, 2018)
• Common step included before step 2 is prompt provision ahead of
learner’s response because it increases learner’s correct response
likelihood.
Procedure
• In DTT, large goals are broken down to small achievable goals.
• These target responses are then presented in a manner which is
clear.
• The teaching method then include the primary components which
are also three-term contingency behavior is properly
distingushable.
• It is also called ABC
• Skills learned by DTT
1. Receptive labels (ability to understand information.
Words, sentences, reading and conversation
meaning.
2. Expressive labels (putting thoughts into words.
Which includes speaking accurate in sense and
grammer).
3. Conversations skills
4. Play and social skills
Research Example
• Conallen and Reed (2016) used DTT approach to teach
emotions to children under ages 6-9.
• The goal was to successful identification of emotions in
different situations.
• Situational cards were used that are likely to indicate
emotion associated with specific occasion
• Card would be placed in front of the participant.
• The participant would then be provided with card
displaying emotion of basic emotions (happy, sad,
angry).
• The participant than to match the card with sample.
• It is called match-to-sample.
• The instructor then combined the presentation of card along with
verbal questions.
• Card of same occasion + Question (it is birthday of boy/girl, how does
boy/girl feels?)
• Participant answered that by selecting emotions card.
• Conallen and Reed concluded that this method was successful in
teaching emotions to the participant.
Basic Requirements of DTT by Ryan &
Hemmes (2005).
• Distraction-free
• Materials
• Attending
• Verbal Direction
• Voice tones
• Wait
• Praise statement
• Contingent reinforcers
• Pause for inter-trial interval
• Incidental or additional teaching
• Data recorded
Incidental Teaching

• Teaching technique under Applied behavior Analysis which

increases spontaneous use of language.
• It is used to expand language skills.
o Conversation skills
o Play skills
o Social skills
o Early reading skills
o Receptive labels
• Hart and Risley (1968) developed procedure of IT.
• They wanted to increase complexity of language of
children with low income families.
Rationale
• The child and adult interaction is increased in natural
environment and in unstructured way.
• Adult conveys constructive information to child or
help child to develop some skills.
• The verbal communication skill of child is expanded
and child also generalizes it to other setting.
Incidental teaching consists of four components
1. Environmental Arrangement
2. Child initiation
3. Elaboration
4. Reinforcement
• IT must take place in natural environment where deired
items are readily available.
• Environmental arrangment is followed by child
initiation which can be gesture, one word request,
sentence.
• Interventionist target elaboration of that initiative
response in the form f verbal questioning.
• Vocal model (stating I want girraffe).
• The goal is the learner then imitates the expanded
model or provides the expanded response based on the
prompt provided by the interventionist.
• Immediate provision of reinforcer.
• unprompted nonverbal or verbal response that indicated a preferred
• Correct performance of incidental teaching, given a student initiation,
• Five target responses
 • Incidental teaching is required to begin within 5s of a student
initiation.
Watch-
• instructor/interventionist is sitting or standing with a distance
of 1- 1.5-m of the participant.
Remove
• Removing favorable/desired item includes the instructor should
make eye contact with the participant/learner for about 1
second before the initiation.
Ask
• It includes participant’s response towards interventionist
• Instructor should have expectant look and ask one question or
statement to ask learner
Wait
• Instructor waiting for 10 seconds to get a response
from participant independently.
• He/she can also provide prompt after 10 seconds.
Reward
• Presentation of behavior-specific
reward/reinforcement.
• Enthusiastic tone of voice
• Providing some object
• Favorite activity.
Ryan, et al., 2008).
Benefits
• Generalization
• Less resources
• Home-based intervention
Verbal behavior
• It is similar to discrete trail learning
• It is more intensive
• One-to-one therapy to increase understanding, comprehension of
language
• It develops connection between word and its meaning.
• Deliberate focus on teaching them how to use the particular word
functionally.
Pivotal response training
• Naturalistic and loosely structured.
• Naturally occurring teaching components and its consequences.
• Its major component is to increase motivation.
• It includes
o Turn taking
o Reinforcing attempts
o Child choice
o Interspersing maintenance (maintain pre-learned tasks).
• 4 pivotal areas
1. Motivation
2. Child self-initiation
3. Self management
4. Responsiveness to multiple cues.
• Improvement of pivotal areas improve non-targeted
behaviors as well.
Early Start Denver Model
• It has strong emphasis on pivotal response training.
• It is used for the treatment of Autism majorly
• ESDM states that use play to develop healthy
relationship with parents and therapist.
• Integrate play activities with cognitive, language
and social tasks.
• Example water sponge and phonics.
Mariam Khurshid
Natural Language Paradigm (NLP)
• Natural language paradigm (NLP) is a predecessor of pivotal response training, a form
of training in which certain behaviors are considered to be 'pivotal', i.e. crucial for
other behaviors.

• NLP is based on the understanding that learning can be helped by deliberate

arrangement of the environment in order to increase opportunities to use language.
• It emphasizes upon the child’s initiative. Conducted in play environment.
• Uses natural reinforcers that are consequences related directly to the behavior.
• Encourages skill generalization.
For example, a child who is allowed to leave after being prompted to say “goodbye”
has a greater likelihood of using and generalizing this word when compared with a child
who receives a tangible item for repeating this word.
NLP transfers instruction from the therapy room to the child’s everyday environment
with the interest of the child serving as the starting point for interventions.
Four factors of NLP
1. Purposeful stimulus
2. Use of natural reinforcers
3. Reinforcements of communicative attempts even if they are incorrect
4. Intervention trials mixed with a natural exchange
• Researches show that NLP clearly shows improvements in verbalizations and play
activity in children with autism.

• Implementation with older adults with cognitive impairments show that their
appropriate speech increases and inappropriate speech decreases with help of NLP.
Prompting
• Prompting is a strategy used to correct the learner and still increase learning. 
• It is usually placed after the instruction and before the response.

Instruction ⇒ Response ⇒ Reinforcement/Consequence
          Prompt↵
 Prompting Hierarchy
• Physical: Hand over Hand (HOH), leading a child by the hand, or physically moving a
child
• Model: Demonstrating for the child what you want them to do
• Gestural: Gesturing, pointing, making a non verbal motion to show the child what to do
(*note: don’t combine with words, that’s actually 2 prompts) 
• Verbal: Can be partial verbal or full verbal
• Visual: Larger stimuli, brightly colored stimuli
• Spatial (proximity): Putting the correct choice nearer to the child than the incorrect
choice
• Sequential (order in which things are presented): Working on easy tasks first and
building up to difficult tasks
• Textual (written): Writing out the steps of the task
 How Much to Prompt?

• Least-to-most: Moving up the ladder to increase learning.

For example, when we’re teaching a child to follow the instruction to “come here”,
we would give the instruction and then provide the least amount of prompting
necessary to have them follow it.

• Most-to-least: Moving down the ladder to increase independence. This is often

used in teaching independent skills. 
An example of this would be learning to brush teeth – we might start with hand over
hand and then fade the physical prompt as required or they become more
independent.
 Fading prompts
• Fading prompts, or removing them from the learning situation slowly,
is essential to encourage generalization of skills to other places and
with other people.

• Be sure to fade prompts as quickly as possible to try to reduce prompt-

dependency.
Token Economy
 Token Economy

• Form of behavior modification designed to

increase desirable behavior and decrease
undesirable behavior with the use of tokens.

• Individuals receive tokens immediately after

displaying a desirable behavior. The tokens are
collected and later exchanged for a meaningful
object or privilege
 Application of Token Economy
Token economies are often utilized in:

• Institutional settings, psychiatric clinics and rehabilitative facilities to deal with the
behavior of people who may be forceful or unusual; to instruct the use of suitable behavior
and social abilities in such people.
• Specialized curriculum, such as for youngsters with developmental or learning handicaps,
hyperactivity, consideration deficiency, or any other behavioral issue.
• Normal instruction in universities, different sorts of gathering homes, nursing homes,
healing centers, etc.

Token economies can be utilized exclusively or within gatherings. Along with the
therapist, parents, siblings and teachers can also adjust a point or prize framework in
schools, at home, or even in communities and social setups.
 Components of token economy

1. Obvious Target Conduct

2. Tokens
3. Back-up Reinforcer
4. Token Value
5. Consistent Implementation of Token Economy By Staff
6. Time/Place for Exchange of Tokens
7. Frequency of Tokens
8. A System For Recording Data
1. Obvious Target Conduct

Individuals partaking in a token economy need to know precisely what they must do
to get tokens. The difference between desirable and undesirable conduct is clarified early
in easy-to-understand and specific terms. The quantity of tokens that can be obtained or
lost for every specific conduct is additionally defined.

For example, M will receive 2 tokens if she makes her bed in the morning, 2 tokens
when she takes a bath, and so on.
2. Tokens:
Anything that is obvious and countable can be utilized as a token. Normally utilized
things incorporate poker chips, stickers, or point counts, etc. At the point when an
individual displays a desirable conduct, he/she is quickly given an assigned number of
tokens.

Tokens have no value of their own. They are gathered and later traded for compelling
objects, benefits or activities. Likewise, individuals can lose token(s) for showing
undesirable conduct (response cost).

For example, M will be given fake coins as tokens.

3. Back-up Reinforcers:
Back-up reinforcers are the actual objects, benefits or activities that people get to
enjoy in return for their tokens. These can include new items like clothes, toys, jewelry,
etc., additional leisure time, pleasure trips, TV/computer usage, etc.

Individuals will only be motivated to earn tokens if they anticipate the future reward
represented by the tokens. A well-designed token economy will use back-up reinforcers
chosen by individuals themselves in treatment rather than by the staff.

For example, M will be able to get a piece of jewelry for every 30 tokens that she
collects.
4. Token Value:
The token value of each back-up reinforcer is pre-determined based on monetary value,
demand, or therapeutic value. For example, if the reinforcer is expensive or highly
attractive, the token value should be higher. If possession of or participation in the
reinforcer would aid in the individual's acquisition of skills, the token value should be
lower.
If the token value is set too low, individuals will be less motivated to earn tokens.
Conversely, if the value is set too high, individuals may become easily discouraged. It is
important that each individual can earn at least some tokens.

For example, if M needs to take her medicine 3 times a day, but is not doing so at all,
she will be told that she will receive a token every time she takes her medicine, and that
she can get a piece of jewelry by exchanging only 15 tokens.
5. Consistent Implementation of Token Economy By Staff:

In order for a token economy to succeed, all involved staff members must reward
the same behaviors, use the appropriate amount of tokens, avoid dispensing back-up
reinforcers for free, and prevent tokens from being counterfeited, stolen, or otherwise
unjustly obtained.

Staff responsibilities and the rules of the token economy should be described in a
written manual. Staff members should also be evaluated periodically and given the
opportunity to raise questions or concerns.
6. Time/Place for Exchange of Tokens:
A specific time and place should be set for the exchange of tokens for back-up
reinforcers by the patient.

For example, M will be told that she will be able to exchange tokens for back-up
reinforcers after every 4 days and in the therapist’s office.
 7. Frequency of Tokens:
Initially, tokens are awarded frequently and in higher amounts, but as individuals learn the
desirable behavior, opportunities to earn tokens decrease. The amount and frequency of token
distribution is called a “reinforcement schedule”.

For example, M may earn 10-15 tokens per day in the start, so that she can quickly learn
the value of the tokens. Later, she may earn only 5-7 tokens per day. By gradually decreasing
the availability of tokens (fading), M will be able to learn to display the desirable behavior(s)
independently, without the unnatural use of tokens.

Reinforcers that individuals would normally encounter in society, such as verbal praise,
should accompany the awarding of tokens to aid in the fading process.
8. A System For Recording Data:
Before treatment begins, information (baseline data) is gathered about an
individual's current behavior. Changes in behavior are then recorded on daily data
sheets. This information is used to measure individual progress, as well as the
effectiveness of the token economy.

Information regarding the exchange of tokens also needs to be recorded.

 Advantages of Token Economy
• Behaviors can be rewarded immediately.

• Use of punishment (token loss), which is optional, is less restrictive than other forms of
punishment.

• Individuals can learn how to independently engage in an endless number of appropriate

behaviors.

• Token economies can also develop into a self-monitoring system. This allows the
participating individual to be more aware of his/her own behavior.
 Disadvantages of Token Economy

• Proper administration of token economy requires considerable cost, effort, and

extensive staff training and management.
Response Cost
• Response cost is the term used for removing reinforcement for an undesirable or
disruptive behavior.
• In ABA, it is a form of negative punishment. By removing something (a preferred
item, access to reinforcement) you decrease the likelihood that the target behavior will
appear again.

• It is often used with a token economy and is best used when a student understands the
implications.
 An Example of Response Cost
Alex is a young child with autism. He often leaves the instructional setting,
requiring the teacher to get up and leave. He is currently working on sitting in the
instructional setting while participating in an imitation program.
He is given tokens on a token board for good sitting during instruction, and earns a
three minute break with a preferred item when he earns four tokens. During trials he
is given constant feedback on the quality of his sitting.
Even though his leaving the site of instruction has decreased, he does occasional test
the teacher by getting up and leaving: he automatically loses a token. He quickly
earns it back when he returns to the table and sits well.
Eloping from the classroom has been extinguished. Leaving the instructional site
has dropped from 20 times a day to three times a week.
Easha Shahid
 SHAPING
Shaping is an ABA technique in which successive approximation is done
to reach a final goal. The final goal, often called a terminal behavior is
achieved through gradual step by step process. Shaping can be traced on
the basis of frequency, magnitude and latency of the behavior.
Basic constituents of shaping
•Differential reinforcement
• In this method, the client is given reinforcement for correct
responses and the reinforcement is withdrawn for behaviors that
are not considered correct.

•Successive  Approximation 
• In this method, to track the improvement of the client, the
reinforcement is provided with each successive step.
 How to do Shaping
• Jot down a terminal behavior
• Decide a basis to track improvement
• Evaluate response class
• Classify the preliminary behavior

• Exclude interfering stimuli

• Proceed in measured step-by-step stages
• Keep the approximations minimal for every level
• Keep Reinforcing till the behavior is acquired  
 Ethical considerations

• Shaping can be time consuming

• Shaping can be misused 
• Harmful behavior may be reinforced unintentionally
• For example, Ali does not complete his homework because he is reluctant to
solve Maths problems. We break down the goal for him into gradual steps.
• Ali will fill in his name on the paper.
• Ali will solve a problem he likes.
• Ali will solve five problems that he likes.
• Ali will solve all the even numbered questions.
• Ali will solve all problems but leave one.
• Ali will solve al problems
 Chaining
• Chaining is a technique that makes use of a sequence of responses. In this
procedure, each response leads to a stimulus that works as a conditioned
reinforcement for that response.
Advantages:
• Chaining helps improve self-help capacity of the clients
• It helps connect complex behaviors together
• Chains can aid in behaviors related to social settings
Types of chains

• Forward chaining

The target behavior is taught in its natural order.

• Total-task chaining

In this technique, the learner is provided with training gradually in the task
analysis of every step
• Backward chaining

In this technique, the behaviors are taught in a way that the terminal behavior
comes first and then the tasks are taught backwards.
• Example of Chaining: Zipping

• 1) The client pulls zipper together so that each side touches the other.
• 2) The client exhibits step 1 and joins the two halves.
• 3) The client completes steps 1-2 and pulls the zip to the end to lock the zipper.
• 4) The client independently zips and demonstrates his learned behavior.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-RS80DVvrg
Conclusion
References
• ATN/AIR-P Parents Guide to Applied Behavior Analysis ... (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/atnair-p-parents-guide-applied-behavior-
analysis.
• Leaf J.B., Cihon J.H., Ferguson J.L., Weinkauf S.M. (2017) An Introduction to
Applied Behavior Analysis. In: Matson J. (eds) Handbook of Childhood
Psychopathology and Developmental Disabilities Treatment. Autism and Child
Psychopathology Series. Springer, Cham
• Long, S. (2018,). ABA 101: What is ABA? Retrieved from
https://theautismhelper.com/aba-101-what-is-aba/
• S., Carolyn. (2011). Applied Behavior Analysis: Teaching Procedures and Staff
Training for Children with Autism. Autism Spectrum Disorders - From Genes to
Environment. doi: 10.5772/17572