Anatomic terms

- Anatomic position- upper limbs by the sides and the face and palms of
the hands directed forward
- Median sagittal plane- vertical plane passing through the center of the
body, dividing it to equal right and left halves
o Paramedian- parallel plane situated to the side of the median plane
o Medial- structure situated nearer the median plane
o Lateral- structure situated farther from the median plane
- Coronal plane- imaginary vertical planes at right angles to the median plane
o Anterior- front body
o Posterior- back body
 Hands- palmar and dorsal
 Feet- plantar and dorsal
 Proximal and distal- relative distance from the roots of the limbs
 Superficial and deep- relative distance of structures from the surface of the
body
 Superior and inferior- denotes levels relatively high or low with reference to the
upper and lower ends of the body
 Internal and external- relative distance of a structure from the center of an
organ or cavity
 Ipsilateral- same side of the body
 Contralateral- opposite side of the body
 Supine- lying on the back
 Prone- lying face downward
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous system- made up of brain, spinal cord, and the nerves.
Network of nerve cells and fibers regulates the body’s responses to internal and
external stimuli
Neurons- major part of the nervous system
Highly specialized; consists of a cell body(cyton) with a nucleus and nerve fibers
Nerve fibres- 2 types: axon and dendrites
Axon- single, usually very long fibre which is branched only at the tip
Dendrites- usually short and branched; carries stimuli to the cell body
Neuroglia- undifferentiated supporting cells which form the packing around the neurons
Classified into three types( based on their function)
Sensory(afferent) neurons- convert external stimuli from the environment into
internal stimuli
Olfactory receptors or taste receptors- conduct information to the CNS
Motor(efferent) neurons- located in the CNS and conduct information away
from it to the effectors (muscles, glands, organs, etc)

Interneurons- connect other neurons within a region and relay stimuli; usually
confined to the CNS
Structure of a neuron
Cell body (cyton)- bulbous central body of
a neuron
Entire neuron surrounded by a cell
membrane, neurilemma
Consists of a nucleus and masses of
RNA (Nissl granules) surrounding the
nucleus
Nerve fibres (dendrites and axon)
Dendrites- receive impulse and
conduct them towards the cell body
Axons- carry impulses away from the
cell body
Terminate by branching into
many fine filaments called
terminals/ telodendrites
Surrounded by myelin sheath,
complex of fat and protein and also
surrounded by neurilemma
Myelin material is constricted at
intervals- regions known as
nodes of Ranvier
 Synapse- functional contact between axons and dendrites that forms a junction is
referred to as synapse
Nerve impulse
-wave of physicochemical activity in the nerve which travels from the cell body to
the axon and along this structure to another nerve cell or non-nervous tissue (muscle)
Synaptic transmission
- Junction between two neurons is the most imiportant part of the NS
- Axonic terminal of one neuron synapses with the dendritic terminal of another
neuron
- Cell membrane of neurons at the axo-dendritic connections do not join but are
separated, the gap is known as synaptic cleft/gap
- Chemical transmitters (neurotransmitters) diffuse across the synapse
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances which transmit impulse through the synapse
At least 8 different NT
Acetylcholine(Ach)- main transmitting agent
Norepinephrine(noradrenaline) and serotonin
Glycine
Parts of the Nervous system
Divided into two parts
Central Nervous system (CNS)- includes the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous system (PNS)- include cranial nerves and spinal nerves
-Autonomic Nervous system (ANS)- not under control of the will
Includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
- Somatic nervous system- makes up the pathway from the CNS to the
muscle
Central Nervous system
Brain- most highly specialized and well developed organ of the body
Lodged in a protective bony vault called cranium in the head
Weighs about 1.4kg and is composed of about 12 M neurons
Covered by three membranes called meninges
Duramater- fibrous and tough membrane
Arachnoid- middle membrane
Piamater- innermost layer
Subarachnoid space- between arachnoid and piamater
Contains a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
3 main parts
Cerebrum- divided into right and left cerebral hemisphere by a deep
longitudinal fissure
Surface is wrinkled and the depression are called fissures
Sulci- shallow depressions that give rise to convolutions
Gyri- portions of convolution
Cerebral cortex- surface layer composed of gray matter
- Gray matter also found in the interior of the
cerebrum which constitute the basal ganglia
- White matter- nervous matter found between cortex
and basal ganglia
-Mainly composed of nerve fibres
Each cerebral hemisphere is composed of four lobes
- Frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes
- Enclose cavities called ventricles
-Two lateral ventricles, Third ventricle
Corpus callosum- nervous tract which connects the two hemispheres
Thalamus- gray material that bounds the third ventricle laterally
Hypothalamus- below each of the thalamus, forming the floor of the third ventricle
Pineal body- attached to the roof of the third ventricle
Pituitary gland- located below the hypothalamus
Functions
Cerebral cortex- centre of intelligence, memory and
imagination
Thalamus- relay station for sensory pathways; stimulation gives
rise to exaggerated sensations of pain and pleasure
Hypothalamus- regulation of body temperature, blood
pressure, water, fat and carbohydrate metabolism
Cerebellum- a miniature of cerebral hemispheres in appearance
Attached to the brain stem by three pairs of massive bundles of
nerve tissues called peduncles
- Functions: coordinates impulses from sensory organs and is
responsible for muscular movements as well as maintaining
equilibrium
Brain stem- massive bundle of nerve tissue associated with the base of the cerebral
hemispheres
-Divided into three areas: midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
-Connected into the third ventricle by aqueduct of Sylvius
-Functions- control respiration a d cardiovascular function
-Cardiac centre, centres of defecation, deglutition etc.
-Medulla also controls certain reflexes like cough reflex, sneezing reflex,
salivary reflex, etc.
Spinal Cord
-Massive nerve column contiguous
with the brain stem, emerging
through foramen magnum and
terminating at the upper border of
the second lumbar vertebra
-Measures about 18 inches
Also covered by three meninges
-Duramater- outermost
-Arachnoid- innermost
-Piamater- innermost
-CSF- present in space between
piamater and arachnoid
Divided into 5 regions
-Cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral, coccygeal regions
Cross section of spinal cord
-Gray matter- internally located,
arranged in the form of letter H,
surrounded by white matter
-Dorsal horns- upper arm of the
“H”
-Ventral horns- lowerarm of the
“H”
-Central canal- pierces the
central bar of gray matter
Cauda equina- posterior part of the
spinal cord with nerves
Filum terminale- slender terminal
part
Functions
Carries stimuli to the brain and
conveys impulses from the brain
to various parts of the body
Carries out reflex actions
Peripheral nervous system
Cranial nerves
12 pairs originate from the brain
Cranial nerves of the right part of the
brain go to the left part of the body
and those of the left part of the brain
go to the right part of the body
Either sensory, motor or both(mixed)
 Spinal nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves originating
from the spinal cord
Named after the 5 regions of the
spinal cord
Cervical- 8 pairs
Thoracic- 12 pairs
Lumbar- 5pairs
Sacral- 5 pairs
Coccygeal- 1 pair
Innervate the various parts of the body; bring
stimuli to the spinal cord and carry impulses
from the spinal cord to various organs
Types of peripheral nerves
Classified as sensory, motor or mixed
(depends on the direction in which
they carry impulses)
-Sensory nerves- carry impulses
towards the central nervous
system from internal organs or
from external stimuli
-Motor nerves- carry impulses
from the CNS to organs and
muscles
-Mixed- contain both types of
neurons; carry impulses toward
and away from the CNS
Autonomic Nervous system
-Includes sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
- spinal nerves from thoracic and
lumbar regions are connected to the
sympathetic chain through ganglia,
which constitute the sympathetic
nervous system
Sympathetic chain- has nerves
going to the heart and blood
vessels, lungs, stomach, sex
organs and endocrine glands
Nerves are stimulatory in
nature; hence increase the
activities of organs
Parasympathetic nervous system
(PSNS)- nerve fibres from 3rd, 7th, 9th,
and 10th cranial nerves and also the
upper roots of 2nd 3rd and 4th sacral
spinal nerves are connected to
parasympathetic chain
Parasympathetic nerves also go
to internal organs like heart,
stomach, lungs, bladder and
endocrine glands
Nerves are inhibitory in nature
and hence decrease the
activities of these organs
Neurotransmitter effect
ANS
Preganglionic fibers- release Ach
Postganglionic fibers- release Ach or norepinephrine at effectors
Effects is either stimulatory or inhibitory depending on type of
receptors
Dual innervation- almost all visceral organs are served by both
divisions with opposite effects
Cholinergic fibers release Ach
- All preganglionic axons in ans
- All parasympathetic postganglionic axons
Adrenergic fibers release NE
Most sympathetic postganglionic axons
Exceptions- sympathetic postganglionic axons of sweat glands and
some blood vessels in skeletal muscles
Receptors for Neurotransmitters
Cholinergic receptors for Ach
Adrenergic receptors for NE
2 types of cholinergic receptors
Nicotinic- found on motor end plate of skeletal muscles cells, all
ganglionic neurons( sympathetic and parasympathetic), hormone
producing cells of adrenal medulla
Effect of Ach at nicotinic receptor is always stimulatory
Muscarinic receptor
Can either be inhibitory or excitatory
Depends on the receptor type of target organ
Stimulated by postganglionic neurons
Adrenergic receptors
Two types
Alpha
A1 and A2
Beta
B1,B2,B3
Mechanism of transmitter secretion and removal at postganglionic endings
-Postganglionic nerve endings have bulbous enlargement called varicosities,
synthesize and store transmitter vesicles
-Upon action potential, Calcium ions diffuse into nerve terminals or varicosities
causing them to empty their contents, secreting the NT
-Ach is synthesized in terminal endings then stored in vesicles in highly concentrated
form
– acetyl CoA + choline ---choline acetyl transferase-acety choline
– once secreted, lasts for a few seconds and then splits into acetate and choline
by acetylcholinesterase
Choline is transported back to be used again
NE is synthesized in the axoplasm of terminal
nerve fibers and completed inside secretory
vesicles
Tyrosine—hydroxylation Dopa
Dopa---decarboxylation-dopamine
Dopamine transported in the vesicle
Dopamine---
hydroxylationnorepinephrine
In adrenal medulla
NE—methylation epinephrine
After secretion
-Reuptake into adrenergic nerve
endings
-Diffusion into body fluids and blood
-Destruction by enzymes
Monamineoxidase (nerve
endings)
COMT(Diffused in all tissues)
Blood brain barrier- formed by astrocytes,
makes the blood pas through the cell,
Regulates what substances can get from the
blood stream into the tissue fluid of the brain
Higly permeable to water, glucose, lipid-soluble
substances (O2,CO2,ok,caffeine)
Ach receptors- both activated by Ach
Muscarinic- found on all effector cells
stimulated by postganglionic cholinergic
neurons
-parasympathetic and sympathetic
postganglionic neurons
Nicotinic- found in autonomic ganglia
- at synapse between pre and postganglionic
neurons of both sympa and parasympathetic
systems
-At neuromuscular junctions

Adrenergic receptors
-Alpha 1 and 2
-Beta 1 and 2
NE- excites alpha mainly and lesser extend to
Beta
Epinephrine- excites both equally
-Curare- block Ach receptors
-Metacholine-carbachol,nicotine- Ach like
action on muscle fiber
-Neostigmine,physostigmine- stimulate
neuromuscular junction by inactivating
acetlycholinesterase
-Curariform drugs (D-tubocurarine)- block
transmission at neuromuscular junction
 *Drugs that act on adrenergic effector organs
Sympathomimetic drugs/ adrenergic drugs
-NE,Epinephrine, methoxamine
-Phenylephrine- specific alpha
-Isoproterenol- beta
-Albuterol- B2
-Indirect sympathomimetic action- effect is cause release
of NE from its vesicles
-Ephedrine
-Tyramine
-Amphetamine
*Drugs that block adrenergic activity
Antiadrenergic
-Reserpine- prevent synthesis and storage of NE
-Phenoxybenzamine and phentolamine- block alpha
receptors
-Propranolol, metoprolol- block beta receptors
-Hexamethonium- block sympathetic and para
sympathetic transmission
*Drugs that act on Cholinergic effector organs
-Parasympathomimetic or cholinergic drugs
-Pilocarpine and metacholine- act directly on muscarinic type of receptor
-Anticholinesterase drugs potentiate parasympathetic effects
-Neostigmine
-Pyridostigmine
-Ambenonium
*Drugs that block cholinergic activity/ antimuscarinic drugs
-Atropine, hematropine, scopolamine
-Block Ach at muscarinic receptors
*Drugs that stimulate postganglionic neurons
-Nicotine- excites both sympa and para postganglionic neurons at the same time
-Results in vasoconstriction in abdominal organs and limbs
-Increased G.i. activity, and limslowing heart
-Nicotinic drugs- stimulate autonomic effects by stimulating postganglionic
neurons
-Metacholine- nicotinic and muscarinic action
-Pilocarpine- only muscarinic
*Ganglionic blocking drugs
Block impuls transmission from autonomic pre
to post ganglionic neurons
-Tetraethyl ammonium ion
-Hexamethonium
-Pentolinum
Effect on both para and sympathetic systems
Sympathetic blockade overshadows para
sympathetic effects
Endocrine System
Endocrine system- signal system similar to
nervous system that constitutes a collection of
hormone secreting glands to regulate the
body’s physiology
Hormones are directly released into the blood
stream to act on target organs or cells
Hormones- chemical regulators secreted by the endocrine glands that maintain
homeostasis in the body
-Coordinate and regulate various processes in human body
-Manufactured and released into the blood stream under instructions from
the brain
Target organ- where a specific hormone exerts its effect
Usually located away from the centre of secretion, thus, hormones are often
referred to as distant activators
Endocrine glands- aka ductless glands, devoid of ducts
Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
Unlike exocrine glands which release the secretions through ducts
to external environment
Endocrinology- study of endocrine glands and their secretions
Endocrine glands which constitute the human endocrine system:
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Kidneys
Adrenals
Islet of Langerhans (pancreas)
Testes
Ovaries
Placenta
Thymus
Pineal body
GI hormones secreted by localized areas in the stomach and
small intestine
Heart
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland- aka hypophysis
-Lies in the sella turcica, by the diaphragm (reflection of dura mater)
from the brain
Connected to the hypothalamus by hypophyseal stalk (pituitary stalk)
2 distinct portions
Anterior pituitary or adenohypohysis
Pars distalis
Pars intermedia
Pars tuberalis
Posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis
Median eminence
Infundibulum
Pars nervosa
Between two portions is the pars intermedia- avascular
and generally absent in humans
Adenohypohysis
Pars distalis- composed of cords of parenchymal cells which are divided
into
Chromophils- have affinity to the dye
Acidophils- affinity with acidic dyes (blue)
Most abundant cells in pars distalis
2 varieties
Somatotrophs- secrete somatotropin (GH)
Generally increase cellular metabolic rates
Lactotropes/ mammotrophs- contains prolactin,
promotes mammary gland development during
pregnancy and lactation after birth
Release of prolactin is stimulated by PRH
 Basophils- affinity to basic dyes (blue)
3 varieties
Corticotrophs- secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) and lipotropic hormone
Stimulated byr CRH
ACTH- stimulates cells of suprarenal cortex
Thyrothrophs- secrete TSH or thyrotropin
Stimulated by TRH
Gonadotrophs- secrete FSH and LH
Stimulated by LHRH
Chromophobes- no affinity to the die, very little cytoplasm
-Pars intermedia- synthesize the prohormone (POMC) pro-
opimelanocortin hormone which forms the alpha-MSH which may
stimulate release of prolactin
-Pars tuberalis- surrounds the hypophyseal stalk
Frequently absent on its posterior aspect
Highly vascularized by arteries and hypophyseal portal system
Neurohypophysis- posterior pituitary gland
Divided into: median eminence, infundibulum, pars nervosa
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
Formed by axons of neurosecretory cells whose bodies lie in the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus
Terminate at the vicinity of capillaries
Pars nervosa- receives terminals of the
neurosecretory hypothalamohypophyseal
tract
Population of axons contain
vasopressin and oxytocin
Vasopressin- cell bodies located
in supraoptic nucleus
Vasopressin- target
collecting ducts of kidney
which modulates plasma
membrane permeability
Oxytocin- cell bodies located in
paraventricular nucleus
Targets myometrium of the
uterus, stimulating
contraction of S.M. of
uterus
Stimulate milk ejection by
stimulating contraction of
myoepithelial cells
surrounding glandular
alveoli and ducts of
mammary gland
Pituitary hormones
Anterior pituitary hormones
-Growth hormone- promotes growth of entire body
-Adrenocorticotropin (corticotropin)- sontrols
secretion of some adreno cortical hormones which
affect metabolism of glucose, proteins and fats
-Thyroid stimulating hormones or thyrotropin-
controls rate of secretion of thyroxine,
triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland
-Prolactin- promotes mammary gland development
and milk production
-Gonadotropic hormones
-FSH- follicle stimulating hormone and LH-
luteinizing hormone
-Control growth of ovaries and testes and
their hormonal and reproductive activities
Posterior pituitary hormones
-ADH or vasopressin
Controls the rate of water excretion in the urine, help
control concentration of water in body fluid
-Oxytocin- help express milk from the glands of the breast to the
nipples during suckling and helps in the delivery of the baby
 All secretions of the pituitary is controlled by either hormonal or nervous
signals from the hypothalamus
-Secretion from the posterior pituitary gland- under neural control
-Secretion from anterior pituitary is controlled by hypothalamic
releasing and hypothalamic inhibitory hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus and conducted to the anterior pituitary through the
hypothalamic hypophyseal blood vessels
These releasing and inhibiting hormones will then act on glandular cells of the
anterior pituitary to control their secretion
 Actions of hypothalamic releasing
and inhibiting hormones- control
secretion of the anterior pituitary
hormones
-Thyrotropin- releasing
hormone (TRH)- stimulates
release of thyroid stimulating
hormones
-Corticotropin- releasing
hormone (CRH)- stimulates
release of adrenocorticotropin
-Growth hormone- releasing
hormone (GHRH)- stimulates
release of growth hormone
-GHIH- aka somatostatin,
inhibits release
-Gonadotropin releasing
hormone (GnRH0- stimulates
release of LH and FSH
Prolactin inhibitory hormone (PIH)- inhibits
prolactin secretion
Thyroid gland- large unpaired gland
Consists of two lateral lobes (covers the
anterolateral surface of trachea, cricoid
cartilage, and lower part of thyroid cartilage)
Isthmus- connects the lateral lobes
 Thyroid follicle- structural and functional unit
of thyroid gland
Stores its secretory substances in the
lamina of follicles
T3 and T4 are stored in the colloid which
are bound by thyroglobulin

Parafollicular cells- aka clear cells

Lies singly or in clusters among follicular
cells but don’t reach the lumen of the
follicle
Contain calcitonin which inhibit bone
resorption

Follicular cells- aka principal cell

–small vesicles dispersed throughout the
cytoplasm which contain thyroglobulin
packed in the golgi complex destined for
exocytosis in the follicle lumen
Thyroid functions
Secrete two major hormones
-Thyroxine (t4) and triiodothyronine- profoundly increase metabolic
rate
-Secretion primarily controlled by TSH
-Stimulate o2 consumption by most of the cells in the body, help to
regulate lipid and CHO metabolism thus influence body mass and
mentation
Secrete calcitonin to regulate circulating levels of calcium
Parathyroid gland- One parathyroid gland is
located on both poles of the right and left
lobes of the thyroid gland
-2 superior PTG are more constant in
position
-2 inferior PTG gland lie to the inferior
poles of thyroid gland

Parenchyma composed of 2 cell types;

chief cells- synthesize PTH
oxyphil cells- inactive phase of chief cells
functions:
hypercalcemic hormone of the body
stimulates conversion of calcidiol (vit D2)
to calcitriol (vit d3) in the proximal tubule
to enhance calcium absorption
Adrenal glands- associated at the superior pole
of each kidney
-each gland has a yellow cortex and
dark brown medulla
- right adrenal- pyramid in shape; left adrenal-
crescentric in shape
-produce 2 different groups of hormones:
steroid and catecholamines
-parenchyma divided into two different
portions
suprarenal cortex- yellowish outer portion
-80-90% of the organ
-Produces the corticosteroids (from
cholesterol)
Cortisol
Corticosterone
-Regulated by ACTH
Suprarenal medulla- regulated by
sympathetic nervous system and
produces
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Adernal cortex- synthesize and secrete hormones
without storing them
Divided into three concentric zones which
secrete specific hormones
-Zona glomerulosa
Synthesize and release aldosterone
and deoxycorticosterone
(mineralocorticoids) when stimulate
by angiotensin II and ACTH
Secretion function in controlling
fluid and electrolyte balance by
affecting the distal tubules
-Zona fasciculata- synthesize and release
the hormones cortisol and corticosterone
(Glucocorticoids) when stimulated by ACTH
Secretion function in controlling CHO,
CHON and fat metabolism
-Zona reticularis
Synthesize and release
dehydroepiandrosterone
androstenedione (androgen); weak
masculinizing hormones
Suprarenal medulla- functions as modified
sympathetic ganglion housing postganglionic
sympathetic cells that lack dendrites and axons
Central portion of the gland
Chromaffin cells- produces the
catecholamines
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine